Some Polish contributions were less visible, and most notably included the prewar and wartime decyphering of German Enigma machine codes by cryptologists Marian Rejewski and his colleagues.

A few months later, using the Polish techniques, the British began reading Enigma ciphers in collaboration with Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologists who had escaped Poland, overrun by the Germans, to reach Paris.

* Polish cryptologists Marian Rejewski, Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Różycki broke the Enigma machine code.

Henri Braquenié were ( December 3-7 ) visiting London and Bletchley Park, the British asked that the Polish cryptologists be turned over to them.

Over the next seven years, Polish cryptologists overcame the growing structural and operating complexities of the plugboard-equipped Enigma.

During the Polish – Soviet War ( 1919 – 1921 ), some one hundred Russian ciphers were broken by a sizable cadre of Polish cryptologists who included Army Lt. Jan Kowalewski and three world-famous professors of mathematics — Stefan Mazurkiewicz, Wacław Sierpiński and Stanisław Leśniewski.

In the crucial month of August 1920 alone, Polish cryptologists decrypted 410 signals: from Soviet General Mikhail Tukhachevsky, commander of the northern front ; from Leon Trotsky, Soviet commissar of war ; from commanders of armies, e. g. the commander of the IV Army, Sergieyev ; the commander of the Horse Army, Semyon Budionny ; the commander of the 3 Cavalry Corps, Gaya ; from the staffs of the XII, XV and XVI Armies ; from the staffs of the Mozyr Group ( named after the Belarussian city ); the Zolochiv Group ( after the Ukrainian town ); the Yakir Group General Iona Emmanuilovich Yakir ; from the 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 24, 27, 41, 44, 45, 53, 54, 58 and 60 Infantry Divisions ; from the 8 Cavalry Division, etc.

Polish cryptologists enjoyed generous support under the command of Col. Tadeusz Schaetzel, chief of the Polish General Staff's Section II ( Intelligence ).

The Polish cryptologists ' work led, among many other things, to discovery of a large gap on the Red Army's left flank, which enabled Poland's Marshal Józef Piłsudski to drive a war-winning wedge into that gap during the August 1920 Battle of Warsaw.

Polish monitoring stations began intercepting them, and cryptologists in the Polish Cipher Bureau's German section were instructed to try to read them.

As late as December 1939, when Lt. Col. Gwido Langer, accompanied by Captain Braquenié, visited London and Bletchley Park, the British asked that the Polish cryptologists be turned over to them.

The code had first appeared in December 1939, but the Polish cryptologists had been too preoccupied with Enigma to give the code much attention.

In 1967 the Polish military historian Władysław Kozaczuk, in his book Bitwa o tajemnice ( The Struggle for Secrets ), first revealed that the German Enigma had been broken by Polish cryptologists before World War II.

The method of Zygalski sheets was a cryptologic technique used by the Polish Cipher Bureau before and during World War II, and during the war also by British cryptologists at Bletchley Park, to decrypt messages enciphered on German Enigma machines.

On December 28, part of the second set was delivered to the Polish cryptologists, who had by then escaped from German-overrun Poland to PC Bruno outside Paris, France.

The Polish cryptologists and commanders were thus regularly able to look over the shoulders of the Bolshevik commanders, including Mikhail Tukhachevski himself, and their superior, Leon Trotsky .< sup > 1 </ sup > ( In this regard, the Red Army repeated mistakes that had been made in World War I by its Tsarist predecessor vis-a-vis the German Army, and that had contributed fundamentally to the Russian 1914 defeat at Tannenberg .< sup > 2 </ sup >) Poland's cryptological achievements in the Polish-Soviet War were a prelude to the spectacular achievements of her General Staff's Cipher Bureau ( Biuro Szyfrów ), from December 1932, in decrypting German Enigma machine ciphers.

In July 1941, Polish cryptologists Marian Rejewski and Henryk Zygalski were asked to test the security of the Polish Lacida ( or LCD ) rotor cipher machine.

After some delay Sigismund assented to the offer, with the provision that Prussia should be treated as a Polish fiefdom ; and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at Kraków, Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on 10 February 1525.

There is some documentary proof that the Romans named the hot sulfur springs of Aachen Aquis-Granum, and indeed to this day the city is known in Italian as Aquisgrana, in Spanish as Aquisgrán and in Polish as Akwizgran.

The accusative case existed in Proto-Indo-European and is present in some Indo-European languages ( including Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, German, Polish, Swedish, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian ), in the Uralic languages, in Altaic languages, and in Semitic languages ( such as Classical Arabic ).

The details of the agreement are not known ; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish prisoners, numbering some 25, 000.

However some cavalry still served during the Second World War, notably in the Red Army, Italian Royal Army and the Polish Army.

Universal Polish Christmas foods are pierogi as well as some herring dishes, and for desert, makowiec or noodles with poppy seed.

According to the Polish Kabbalist, " the legend was known to several persons, thus allowing us to speculate that the legend had indeed circulated for some time before it was committed to writing and, consequently, we may assume that its origins are to be traced to the generation immediately following the death of R. Eliyahu, if not earlier.

According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens and inhabitants of the other annexed lands, regardless of their ethnic origin, were arrested and sent to the gulag camps.

The changes were partial and gradual, and the degree of the fast-paced in some areas industrialization and capitalist development on Polish lands lagged behind the advanced regions of western Europe.

Like Polish, Kashubian includes about 5 % loanwords from Low German, such as kùńszt ( art ), and some from High German.

At some point in prehistory, an earlier caldera-forming eruption had occurred, leaving as remnants Verlaten ( or Sertung ); Lang ( also known as Rakata Kecil, or Panjang ); Poolsche Hoed ; (" Polish Hat ") and the base of Rakata.

During the Ostsiedlung, a settlement was founded by German settlers some kilometers off the site of the Slavic one, the official city website mentions that it was located within the boundary of today's downtown of Kołobrzeg and that certain part of inhabitants of the Polish town moved to the new settlement.

Over the course of time, some nobles were polonized into the Polish – Lithuanian nobility ( Szlachta ) or russified into the Russian nobility ( Dvoryanstvo ).

On 12 September 1942,, carrying some 80 civilians, 268 British Army soldiers, about 1, 800 Italian prisoners of war, and 160 Polish soldiers ( on guard ), was struck and sunk by a torpedo from Kriegsmarine submarine off the coast of west Africa.

MSP's first project was the Polish MPV ( pressurized rover ) design, for which some hardware was produced.

The Polish state has steadfastly pursued a policy of economic liberalization throughout the 1990s, with positive results for economic growth but negative results for some sectors of the population.

Undoubtedly, they belong to the Polish language, but they also have some features in common with the Pomeranian language, which proves their character was transitional.

However, there have also been some Polish linguists who treated Pomeranian as a separate language.

The language syntax uses reverse Polish notation, which makes the order of operations unambiguous, but reading a program requires some practice, because one has to keep the layout of the stack in mind.

The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a wide suffrage of some 500, 000 nobles.

During the Polish Campaign the Red Army numbered some 6. 5 million men, many of which the Army had difficulty supporting, around 581, 000 in the two operational fronts, Western and Southwestern.

Although a third for of a second remains in some languages, for example Polish ( tercja ) and Turkish ( salise ), the modern second is subdivided decimally.

There are some exceptions in Polish regulations when salute is not demonstrated, for instance after proclaiming alert in military unit area.

Nevertheless, around that time early 16th century Polish geographer Maciej of Miechów in his influential Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis ( 1517 ) argued that there were no mountains in Eastern Europe at all, challenging the point of view of some authors of Classical antiquity, popular during the Renaissance.

The Polish court was more aware of Italian styles than Nuremberg patrons of that time, and some of his Polish work uses Renaissance classical ornament.