* Schenkerian analysis

One of the best known and most influential was Heinrich Schenker, who developed Schenkerian analysis, a method which seeks to reduce all tonal classical works to a simple contrapuntal sequence.

Heinrich Schenker ( June 19, 1868, Wisniowczyki Ukraine – January 14, 1935, Vienna ) was a composer, pianist, music critic, music teacher, and music theorist, best known for his approach to musical analysis, now usually called Schenkerian analysis.

The goal of a Schenkerian analysis is to interpret the underlying structure of a tonal work.

A Schenkerian analysis of a passage of music shows hierarchical relationships among its pitches, and draws conclusions about the structure of the passage from this hierarchy.

The concept of tonal prolongation, in which certain pitches determine the goal of other, subordinate pitches, is a keystone of the pitch hierarchy that Schenkerian analysis involves itself with.

The musical reductions of Schenkerian analysis are usually arrhythmic.

This long-range structure is called the Fundamental Structure ( Ursatz ) in Schenkerian analysis, while the more surface aspects of the music are called the foreground or surface layer.

Open and closed noteheads, beams, and flags, which show rhythm in ordinary musical notation, are used in Schenkerian analysis to show hierarchical relationships between the pitch – events being analyzed.

Schenkerian analysis is a subjective, not an objective, method.

Therefore learning how to do Schenkerian analysis is above all else learning a way of hearing and understanding tonal music, and it requires study and practice just as learning to play an instrument does.

The basic components of Schenkerian theory and analysis therefore are the nature of the background — that is, the highest voice – leading level — and the ways in which the background may be prolonged ( elaborated, transformed ) to arrive at the foreground — i. e. the musical composition.

The organization of this work reflects the organization of Schenkerian analysis itself.

Despite this difference, in practice the major and minor triads are treated equally in Schenkerian analysis.

This is the most accurate way to think of the roman numerals that sometimes are placed below a Schenkerian analysis, rather than thinking of them as chord roots.

Salzer, on the other hand, was the first Schenkerian to attempt to use elements of the theory to explain music that is not strictly tonal, an approach that has since engendered structural and linear analysis of early music as well as post-tonal music of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Hampered by limited availability in and after the war years, by the 1960s Schenkerian analysis had begun to attract renewed interest, and by the 1980s it had become one of the main analytical methods used by many North American music theorists.

A thorough documentation of Schenker-related research and analysis is provided in David Carson Berry, A Topical Guide to Schenkerian Literature: An Annotated Bibliography with Indices ( Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2004 ).

The second major English-language textbook on Schenkerian analysis "

According to Middleton ( 1990 ), Schenkerian analysis of music corresponds to the Chomskyan notion of deep structure, applying to a two-level generative structure for melody, harmony, and rhythm, of which the analysis by Lee ( 1985 ) of rhythmical structure is an instance.

Forte has published analyses of the works of Webern and Alban Berg and has written about Schenkerian analysis and American popular song.

The first tenet of Schenkerian harmony is that nature, through the harmonic series, gives us the triad as the ultimate ( and only possible ) basis for musical composition.

The basic component of Schenkerian harmony is the Stufe ( scale degree, scale-step ).

The Stufe is an elusive but important concept in Schenkerian theory.

Schenkerian harmonic theory holds that modulation is an illusory phenomenon in music ( or at least in musical " masterworks ").

In Schenkerian theory, the process of elaborating basic structures by generating subordinate tones is often called diminution.

It is a central principle in the music-analytic methodology of Schenkerian analysis, conceived by Austrian theorist Heinrich Schenker.

The early 20th-century music theorist Heinrich Schenker ( 1868 – 1935 ) was responsible for developing both the conceptual framework for prolongation and a means of analyzing music in terms of prolonged musical structures ( called Schenkerian analysis ).

Over the following nine years, Weisse promoted not just the study of Schenkerian Analysis but the incorporation of it into the musical life of the school, including performance and composition.

Writers on music semiology include Kofi Agawu ( on topical theory, Schenkerian analysis ), Robert Hatten ( on topic, gesture ), Raymond Monelle ( on topic, musical meaning ), Jean-Jacques Nattiez ( on introversive taxonomic analysis and ethnomusicological applications ), Anthony Newcomb ( on narrativity ), and Eero Tarasti ( generally considered the founder of musical semiotics ).

In 1977, Narmour's book laid out problems he had with Schenkerian analysis and sketched ideas for a new model of analysis based on musical expectation as informed by the work of Meyer.

Whenever harmonic progressions suggest new tonics without disrupting the unity of a tonal background in the home key, Schenkerian analysts prefer the weaker term " tonicization " to " modulation.

* Lerdahl and Jackendoff's publication described a generative grammar for homophonic tonal music, based partially on a Schenkerian model.

Scholarly journals are devoted to analysis of his life and work, he has been the subject of numerous biographies and monographs and his music was the driving force behind the development of Schenkerian analysis.

His contributions to Schenkerian theory were twofold: first, he brought Schenker's ideas to the attention of American music theorists and musicologists, and second, he applied the analytical technique to music outside of the common-practice era music in which Schenker had exclusively worked, particularly to the music of the Renaissance, the Middle Ages, and to some music of the 20th century.

Later theorists applied Schenkerian techniques to popular music as well.

The Implication-Realization ( I-R ) model of melodic expectation was developed by Eugene Narmour as an alternative to Schenkerian analysis centered less on music analysis and more on cognitive aspects of expectation.

Schenkerian analyses show Stufen with roman numerals ; e. g., " I " indicates the tonic Stufe, " V " indicates the dominant Stufe, and so on.

For more on issues pertaining to the dissemination of Schenkerian thought in the U. S., see several essays by David Carson Berry, including:

He was one of the principal followers of Heinrich Schenker, and did much to refine and explain Schenkerian analysis after Schenker's death.

I knew that a conversation with the author would not settle such questions, because a man is not the same as his writing: in the last analysis, the questions had to be settled by the work itself.

Let me quote him even more fully, for his analysis is important to my theme.

It is a weakness of Gabriel's analysis that he never seems to realize that his so-called fundamental law had already been cut loose from its foundations when it was adapted to democracy.

Trevelyan accepts Italian nationalism with little analysis, he is unduly critical of papal and French policy, and he is more than generous in assessing British policy.

The research center of the University's School of Business and Public Administration is prepared to undertake the analysis Dr. Ellis has been talking about.

An analysis of the fiscal tax collection year calendars throughout the state indicates that transition may not be as painful as is commonly thought.

Another important source of evidence only recently receiving much attention is the analysis of atmospheric dust for a meteoritic component.

In the last analysis, religion is the means of inducing, formulating, expressing, enhancing, implementing, and perpetuating man's deepest experience -- the religious.

but the subsequent analysis of characteristics is reported only for the de jure population ( or, in some districts, only the de facto population ).

The criterion score used in the statistical analysis is an index of over- or under-achievement.

Tables 1 and 2 present the results of the statistical analysis of the data when compulsivity is used as the descriptive variable.

Finally, information is retrieved from the dictionary as required by stages of the translation process -- the grammatical description for sentence-structure determination, equivalent-choice information for semantic analysis, and target-language equivalents for output construction.

The first stage of translation after glossary lookup is structural analysis of the input text.

From the point of view of syntactic analysis the head word in the statement is the predicator has broken, and from the point of view of meaning it would seem that the trouble centers in the breaking ; ;

Tone analysis will continue to be difficult and unsatisfactory until a more representative selection of systems is familar to every practicing field linguist.

The great majority of present-day linguists fall into one or more of a number of overlapping types: those who are convinced that tone cannot be analysed, those who are personally scared of tone and tone languages generally, those who are convinced that tone is merely an unnecessary marginal feature in those languages where it occurs, those who have no idea how to proceed with tone analysis, those who take a simplistic view of the whole matter.

One issue that must be faced is the relative difficulty of analysis of different phonologic subsystems.

A third explanation is suggested by Richardson's analysis of Sukuma tone.

The difficulty of analysis of any subsystem in the phonology is an inverse function of the size -- smaller systems are more troublesome -- for any given degree of morphophonemic complexity.

The treatment seems unnecessarily loose-jointed and complex, largely because the method is lax and the analysis seems never to be pushed to a satisfactory or even a consistent stopping-point.

Mr. Alexander H. Wheelan's Study Helps In Point And Figure Technique tells the readers: `` We assure you that the total number of people using this method of market analysis is a very small portion of the sum total of those operating in the securities and commodities markets ''.

The threadbare notion that belief, unlike behaviour, is not subject to objective analysis, has placed intuitive metaphysics squarely against the sociology of knowledge, since it is precisely the job of the sociology of knowledge to treat beliefs as social facts no less viable than social behaviour.

It is rather that introducing them into social analysis reflects not so much a search for truth as for certainty.