In 1514, Selim I, the Sunni Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, attacked Ismail's kingdom to stop the spread of Shiism into Ottoman dominions.

Among the booties from Tabriz was Ismail's favorite wife, for whose release the Sultan demanded huge concessions, which were refused.

Sultan Ismail's

In his farewell speech at the end of his and Sultan Ismail's term as Yang Di Pertuan Agong, Tunku Abdul Rahman declared that the event signified " the end of the first chapter of Malaysia's history ".

Despite this unfortunate event Tunku Abdul Rahman described Sultan Ismail's reign as " a most eventful and glorious one ".

Relations with the Menteri Besar of Johor, Othman Saat deteriorated when the latter questioned Tunku Iskandar's legitimacy to the throne, which led to an incident which saw the Sultan issuing an order to the Menteri Besar to vacate his office within 24 hours, shortly after Sultan Ismail's death, citing reasons for the need for that office space for his own.

Ismail's ascension had been recognized by the British Crown but by the machination of a new British Governor-General of the Straits Settlements based in Singapore and the Ghee Hin chinese triad society chief in Singapore who was after a tin-mining concession in the Kinta valley of Perak, Raja Abdullah's claim to the Perak throne was revived and officially supported by the Governor-General, leading to the Pangkor Treaty which was not recognized by Sultan Ismail and several chiefs loyal to him including the Sultan's Defender, Maharajalela.

During the first five years of Humayun's reign, these two rulers were quietly extending their rule, although Sultan Bahadur faced pressure in the east from sporadic conflicts with the Portuguese.

France's exile of the highly respected Sultan Mohammed V to Madagascar in 1953 and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader.

During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.

During the Tulip Era ( 1718 – 1730 ), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift.

The reign of Sultan Abdülmecid I | Abdülmecid was marked by the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms ; the Crimean War and Ottoman public debt | first foreign debt of the Ottoman Empire in 1854.

This practice continued for centuries, until the reign of Sultan Mehmet IV.

The literary historian E. J. W. Gibb observed that " at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan ".

The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date.

The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid Said, who moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, established a ruling Arab elite, and encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's slave labor.

During Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II ’ s reign, disturbances occurred in Sarawak.

During the final years of his reign Hyder Ali also planned to send an embassy to the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III, but it was his son Tipu Sultan who succeeded in making direct contact with Istanbul.

During the reign of Dharma Raja, Marthanda Varma's successor, Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of Kingdom of Mysore and the son of Hyder Ali attacked Travancore as a part of the Mysorean invasion of Kerala ; this lead to the famous Third Anglo-Mysore War, as Travancore had already allied with the British to seek protection from the potent assault from Tippu.

During Dharma Raja's reign, Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of Mysore and the son of Hyder Ali attacked Travancore in 1789 as a part of Mysore invasion of Kerala.

During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, the Portuguese came to Malacca for the following reasons ;

The Janissaries first began enrolling outside the devşirme system during the reign of Sultan Murad III ( 1574 – 1595 ) and abandoned devşirme recruitment completely during the 17th century.

The Great Mongol Shahnameh, produced during the reign of the Ilkhanid Sultan Abu Sa ' id, is one of the most illustrative and important copies of the Shahnameh.

His reign was essentially that of his mother, Mâh-Peyker Kösem Valide Sultan, who was no longer hindered in controlling the empire as she willed.

It took place concomitantly with the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Selim III.

The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered as one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.

During his short reign, Mustafa would both save his cousin's life, and order him murdered. Mustafa was Sultan Selim III's favourite crown prince, but he deceived his Cousin and co-operated with the rebels and took his throne.

In 1794, during the reign of Sultan Selim III, the roof of the tower made of lead and wood, and the stairs were severely damaged by a fire.

However, the vassalage of the Ottoman Sultanate ended with the death of Tamerlane during the reign of the next Ottoman ruler, Sultan Murad II, who took the style Sultan ul-Mujahidin, Sovereign of the House of Osman, Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, and of the Cities of Adrianople and Philipopolis.

The following conversation is said to have taken place after Romanos was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan:

Ahmed I ( Ottoman Turkish: احمد اول Aḥmed-i evvel, ) or Ahmed Bakhti ( April 18, 1590 – November 22, 1617 ) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 until his death in 1617.

Ahmed I's mother was Valide Sultan Handan Sultan, an ethnic Greek who was originally named Helena.

He was married twice, to Valide Sultan Mahfiruze Hatice Sultan, originally named Maria, a Greek, mother of Osman II, and to Valide Sultan Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan or Mahpeyker, originally named Anastasia, a Greek, mother of Murad IV and Ibrahim I.

Ahmed II Khan Ghazi ( Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثانى Aḥmed-i < u > s </ u > ānī ) < span dir =" ltr ">( February 25, 1643 – February 6, 1695 )</ span > was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1691 to 1695.

Ahmed II was born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ibrahim I ( 1640 – 48 ) by Valide Sultan Khadija Muazzez, and succeeded his brother Suleiman II ( 1687 – 91 ) in 1691.

Ahmed III ( Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثالث Aḥmed-i < u > s </ u > āli < u > s </ u >) < span dir =" ltr ">( December 30 / 31, 1673 – July 1, 1736 )</ span > was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV ( 1648 – 87 ).

His mother was Mâh-Pâre Ummatullah ( Emetullah ) Râbi ' a Gül-Nûş Valide Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek.

Sultan Ahmed III had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged ; on September 20, 1730, a mutinous riot of seventeen janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Halil, was aided by the citizens as well as the military until it swelled into an insurrection in front of which the Sultan was forced to give up the throne.

several years I was Sultan ; I dethroned my brother ;

Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III GCSI GCMG GCIE GCVO PC ( November 2, 1877 – July 11, 1957 ) was the 48th Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims.

The distinction of a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897 ( and later Knight Grand Commander in 1902 by Edward VII ) and he received like recognition for his public services from the German Emperor, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia and other potentates.

Under the leadership of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, the first half of the 20th century was a period of significant development for the Ismā ' īlī community.