The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon, blocking both exits from the plain, and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered.

Through cunning strategy, Lysander totally defeated the Athenian fleet, in 405 BC, at the battle of Aegospotami, destroying 168 ships and capturing some three or four thousand Athenian sailors.

He was then able to travel to a meeting of the Allies, at which he proposed his strategy ; with the Athenian fleet fully committed to the defence of Greece, the other Allies accepted his proposals.

Themistocles seems to have deliberately set Athens up as a rival to Sparta in the aftermath of Xerxes's invasion, basing this strategy on Athenian naval power ( contrasted with the power of the Spartan army ).

The Athenian strategy at Cyzicus.

More recent historians, such as Donald Kagan and R. J. Buck, have tended to support this analysis, pointing to the role that Thrasybulus played in crafting Athenian strategy in all these battles, and specifically to the decisive action he took at Cyzicus, which saved Alcibiades's force from being swamped, and turned a potential Athenian defeat into a stunning victory.

However, a clash outside the walls of Mantinea with Athenian cavalry foiled this strategy as well.

Athenian naval strategy at the battle of Cyzicus: Alcibiades ' decoy force draws the Spartan fleet out into open water, and then turns about to engage them.

Cleon's political career was founded on his opposition to the cautious war strategy of Pericles and its highpoint came with the Athenian victory at Sphacteria, for which he was feted and honoured by the majority of his fellow citizens.

Donald Kagan has argued that the Athenian strategy, if this account is accurate, must have been to draw the Peloponnesians into an attack on the small force so that the larger force following could surprise them.

Athenian naval strategy at the battle of Cyzicus: Alcibiades ' decoy force draws the Spartan fleet out into open water, and then turns about to engage them.

The Periclean strategy of hiding behind the Long Walls and relying on the low cash reserves of the Peloponnesians was starting to become unfavorable to the greater Athenian consciousness.

His strategy backfired, and the Spartans under Lysander scored a small but symbolically significant victory over the Athenian fleet.

Athenian society was split into two factions, the Philistines and the Artists.

448 – 400 BC ) was an Athenian tragic poet whose works have been lost.

The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in the Iliad ( 2. 557 – 558 ), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island.

Pausanias, also refers to a statue of Ares by Alcamenes that was erected on the Athenian agora, which some have related to the Ares Borghese.

Anacharsis was the first foreigner ( metic ) who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship.

He was implicated during the Peloponnesian War in the mutilation of the Herms on the eve of the departure of the Athenian expedition against Sicily in 415 BC.

It is most usual to date Athenian democracy from Cleisthenes, since Solon's constitution fell and was replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus, whereas Ephialtes revised Cleisthenes ' constitution relatively peacefully.

Hipparchus, brother of the tyrant Hippias, was killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who were subsequently honored by the Athenians for their alleged restoration of Athenian freedom.

The greatest and longest lasting democratic leader was Pericles ; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War.

One could assume the new term was coined and adopted by Athenian democrats.

Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended.

But for even the most active citizen the formal basis of his political activity was the invitation issued to everyone ( every qualified free male Athenian citizen ) by the phrase " whoever wishes ".

However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as ' serving ' the people.

Another interesting insight into Athenian democracy comes from the law that excluded from decisions of war those citizens who had property close to the city walls-on the basis that they had a personal interest in the outcome of such debates because the practice of an invading army at the time was to destroy the land outside the walls.

Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required.

Misogyny was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to gender democracy generalised a harsher set of values derived, again, from the common people.

Proponents ( especially of majoritarianism ) deny these accusations, and argue that any faults in Athenian democracy were because the franchise was quite limited ( only male citizens could vote — women, slaves and non-citizens were excluded ).

Despite this limited franchise, Athenian democracy was certainly the first — and perhaps the best — example of a working direct democracy.

The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance, dying ( according to Plutarch ) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be.

After four years, however, the Egyptian rebellion was defeated by the Achaemenid general Megabyzus, who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces.

The Second Athenian Empire, a maritime self-defense league, was founded in 377 BC and was led by Athens ; but Athens would never recover the full extent of her power, and her enemies were now far stronger and more varied.

It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.

The " goat-man " who gave his name to the Aegean Sea was, next to Poseidon, the father of Theseus, the founder of Athenian institutions and one of the kings of Athens.

Themistocles is initially opposed by other Athenian leaders.

He was initially cautious about offending Sparta, but, when Persian support became available at the start of the Corinthian War, he became an advocate of aggressive action, and about this time seems to have regained his preeminence in Athenian politics.

The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia ( the Athenian Assembly ) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions.

Squadrons commanded by Thrasybulus and Theramenes move in behind the Spartan ships, to cut off their line of retreat, trapping the Spartans between three groups of Athenian warships ; a much larger force than they had initially expected to engage.

The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia ( the Athenian Assembly ) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions.

Squadrons commanded by Thrasybulus and Theramenes move in behind the Spartan ships, to cut off their line of retreat, trapping the Spartans between three groups of Athenian warships ; a much larger force than they had initially expected to engage.

Most likely born in Athens, he supported the Athenian cause and wanted to help ; however, he caught the Plague " sometime between 430 and 427 BC and initially was prevented from joining the war effort.

In the battle, an Athenian fleet commanded by Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, although initially thrown on the defensive by a numerically superior Spartan fleet, won a narrow victory.

Drawn into the narrow waters of the Corinthian gulf to protect Naupactus, the Athenians were initially routed and divided, but 11 Athenian ships which were pursued into Naupactus were able to turn about on their pursuers and defeat the numerically superior force opposite them.

Much later he created others in collaboration with various partners, namely the medieval architect Jhen ( initially entitled Xan ) in 1978, the French revolutionary officer Arno in 1984, the Athenian Orion in 1990, and the Egyptian Keos in 1992.

Ceramus, initially subjected to Stratonicea, afterwards autonomous, was a member of the Athenian League and was one of the chief cities of the Chrysaorian League ( Bulletin de corresp.