In France before the French Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General, until their role was abolished during the French Revolution.

The first estate was the clergy, the second estate was the nobility, and the third estate were the commoners (" Tiers État " in French ).

The French Huguenot nobles and clergy, having rejected the pope and the Catholic Church, were left only with the supreme power of the king who, they taught, could not be gainsaid or judged by anyone.

This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis ' vassals:

Category: French Calvinist clergy

In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy.

The ambassador of Louis XIV of France ( 1643 – 1715 ) succeeded in procuring his election on 6 October 1689, as successor to Pope Innocent XI ( 1676 – 89 ); nevertheless, after months of negotiation Alexander VIII finally condemned the declaration made in 1682 by the French clergy concerning the liberties of the Gallican church.

Category: French clergy

At this first French States-General in history, all three classes – nobles, clergy, and commons – wrote separately to Rome in defense of the king and his temporal power.

In response, Guillaume de Nogaret, Philip's chief minister, denounced Boniface as a heretical criminal to the French clergy.

On his return to France, he immediately convened an assembly of French and Burgundian bishops at Vienne, where the imperial claim to a traditional lay investiture of the clergy was denounced as heretical and a sentence of excommunication was now pronounced against Henry V on the grounds that he had extorted the Privilegium from Paschal II by means of violence.

Unlike most other direct French taxes, nobles and clergy were not exempted from capitation taxes.

In 1682, the King convoked an assembly of the French clergy which adopted the four articles that became known as the Gallican Liberties.

The French were especially inconvenienced because French law recognized marriages only when contracted under a civil authority ( the nearest being in New Caledonia ), whereas British law recognized marriages conducted by local clergy.

" He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France, and to depose the entire clergy of France, when in September 1303, William Nogaret, the strongest critic of the Papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him.

The constitution did however, limit voting rights to the haute-bourgeoisie and the clergy, if they were fully French speaking, in a country where French was not the majority language ; all together less than 1 % of the adult population.

Ignacy Krasicki ( 3 February 173514 March 1801 ), from 1766 Prince-Bishop of Warmia ( in German, Ermland ) and from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno ( thus, Primate of Poland ), was Poland's leading Enlightenment poet (" the Prince of Poets "), a critic of the clergy, Poland's La Fontaine, author of the first Polish novel, playwright, journalist, encyclopedist, and translator from French and Greek.

Far from disarming the French clergy, many of whom were now advocating conciliarism, the clergy who had appealed Unigenitus to a general council, now appealed Pastoralis officii to a general council as well.

This breach in the privileged status of the aristocracy and the clergy, normally exempt from taxes, was a first in French history, although it had already been advocated by men such as Vauban under Louis XIV.

In the 18th century, before the French Revolution ( 1789 – 99 ), in the French feudal order, the masculine and feminine terms bourgeois and bourgeoise identified the rich men and women who were members of the urban and rural Third Estate — the common people of the French realm, who violently deposed the absolute monarchy of the Bourbon King Louis XVI ( r. 1774 – 91 ), his clergy, and his aristocrats.

Rail transport in Belgium was historically managed by the National Railway Company of Belgium, known as SNCB in French and NMBS in Dutch.

Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglauheim would have to be secured.

" De La Colonie managed to rally some of his grenadiers, together with the remnants of the French dragoons and Greder Suisse battalions, but it was an entirely peripheral operation, offering only fragile support for Villeroi ’ s right flank.

In the same year, Ferdinand VII, with French help and the approval of the Quintuple Alliance, managed to abolish constitutional rule in Spain yet again and re-establish absolutism.

When in 1981 François Mitterrand was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros.

However French settlers returned in 1630 and in 1643 managed to establish a settlement at Cayenne along with some small-scale plantations.

Georgios managed to escape and hide in the French Embassy ; after a few days he surrendered to the Greek authorities.

This was the case throughout the majority of Severn's tenure as Consul, as Pope Pius IX managed to retain a fragile hold on power, relying on a garrison of French troops to control Rome.

The German general staff under Moltke was alarmed and managed to have Bismarck ban a French procurement of ten thousand cavalry horses from Germany.

In the campaign of 1813 Allied forces in the German theater alone amounted to nearly one million whilst two years later in the Hundred Days a French decree called for the total mobilization of some 2. 5 million men ( though at most a fifth of this was managed by the time of the French defeat at Waterloo ).

While Marlborough's attempted invasion of France down the Moselle came to nought, and although he managed to wrong-foot Villeroi and break through the Lines of Brabant, he was unable to bring the French commander to battle.

While not being present in the national parliaments of France and the United Kingdom, Jean-Marie Le Pen of the National Front came second in the first round of the 2002 French presidential elections, and in the 2009 European Parliament election, the UK Independence Party came second, beating even the Labour Party, while the British National Party managed to win two seats for the first time.

The Princessa and Bougainville's Auguste at one point were close enough that the French admiral considered a boarding action ; Drake managed to pull away, but this gave Bougainville the chance to target the Terrible.

Garros finally managed to escape from a POW camp in Germany on 14 February 1918, after several attempts, and rejoined the French army.

By 1913, the British occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor.

In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships managed to depart France, eluding the British blockade of the French coast.

Though a Dutch army managed to suppress this insurrection temporarily, the Zamorin continued to trade with the English and the French, which led to an appreciable upsurge in English and French traffic.

There exists a local school, managed by the Tunisian government, at which only Arabic and French are taught as languages.

Lucca managed, at first as a democracy, and after 1628 as an oligarchy, to maintain its independence alongside of Venice and Genoa, and painted the word Libertas on its banner until the French Revolution in 1789.

Two explanations are given for them being sent to a concentration camp: first, that they had managed to make contact with the French Resistance, some were disguised as civilians, and they were carrying false papers when caught ; they were therefore categorized by the Germans as spies, which meant their rights under the Geneva Convention were not respected.

Many fundamental and applied scientific research laboratories are conjointly managed by Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble Institute of Technology, and the French National Centre for Scientific Research ( CNRS ).