Latin translation of Abū Maʿshar's De Magnis Coniunctionibus (‘ Of the great Conjunction ( astronomy and astrology ) | conjunctions ’), Venice, 1515. Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars following the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th.

The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city Baghdad.

Abd al-Rahman's establishment of a government in al-Andalus represented a branching from the rest of the Islamic Empire, which had been brought under the Abbasid following the overthrow of the Umayyads from Damascus in 750.

Hamdani, an Arab historian, was the best representative of Islamic culture during the last effective years of the Abbasid caliphate.

Islamic scholars of the Abbasid period were faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions, some of them flatly contradicting each other.

conquered by the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century AD, and became a center of the Islamic Golden Age during the medieval Abbasid Caliphate.

The Abbasid Caliphate moved the capital to Baghdad, in modern-day Iraq, which remained the center of the Islamic Empire for nearly 500 years.

The zeal of the Umayyad tax-collectors led to the eruption of two notable revolts in the 740s-the Berber Revolt in North Africa and Spain and the Abbasid Revolt in Persia-demanding the equality of all Muslims, regardless of ethnicity, and adherence to the tax rates prescribed by Islamic law.

When in the following year Suleiman and Ibrahim made a grand entrance into Baghdad, its commander surrendered the city, thereby confirming Suleiman as the leader of the Islamic world and the legitimate successor to the Abbasid Caliphs.

* February 10 – Battle of Baghdad ( 1258 ) – Hulagu Khan's Mongol forces overrun Baghdad, then the leading center of Islamic culture and learning and capital of the Abbasid Caliphate.

The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids ( / ISO 233: ), was the third of the Islamic caliphates.

The Abbasid historical period lasting to 1258 ( Mongol conquest of Baghdad ) is considered the Islamic Golden Age.

The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.

Under Abbasid rule, the legend goes, the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being founded in Samarkand.

During his reign, literature and scholarly work in the Islamic world began to emerge in full force, supported by new Abbasid tolerances for Persians and other groups suppressed by the Umayyads.

Recent scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts ( such as literature, science, and history ); as early as the 9th century, such art flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate ( c. 749-1258, across Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia ).

The Islamic Abbasid caliphs gathered the manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.

The story of an entrenched military caste like the mamluks in Islamic societies begins with the Abbasid caliphs of the 9th century Baghdad.

After the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either mamluks or Ghilman, became the basis of military power throughout the Islamic world.

In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Islamic Abbasid Caliph's presided over what was then one of the world's richest civilizations.

However, it was in the Islamic Golden Age when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith.

* The Abbasid ( in theory still universal ) Caliph Ar-Radi created the post of Amir al-Umara (" Amir of the Amirs ") for his – in fact governing – Wazir ( chief minister ) Ibn Raik ; the title was used in various Islamic monarchies ; see below for military use

In the Islamic world, shipbuilding thrived at Basra and Alexandria, the dhow, felucca, baghlah and the sambuk, became symbols of successful maritime trade around the Indian Ocean ; from the ports of East Africa to Southeast Asia and the ports of Sindh and Hind ( India ) during the Abbasid period.

In the late 10th century, the Byzantines, under Emperor Nikephoros II, began taking advantage of the confusion and instability in the late Abbasid era, seizing parts of the Islamic territory.

Mecca re-entered Islamic political history briefly when it was held by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, an early Muslim who opposed the Umayyad caliphs and again when the caliph Yazid I besieged Mecca in 683.

The invasion of Hispania, and then Gaul, was led by the Umayyad Dynasty ( also " Umawi "), the first dynasty of caliphs of the Islamic empire after the reign of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs ( Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali ) ended.

Few of the later caliphs had anything but nominal control over the many Islamic states, and none were chosen by shura ; all reached power by inheritance.

" If the caliph " neglects it ," by not paying much or any attention, as happened after the first four caliphs, " he would be negligent, but the ruling system would remain Islamic.

In the Mālikī madhhab, sunnah includes not only what was recorded in hadiths, but the legal rulings of the four rightly guided caliphs ( Rāshidūn ), primarily ‘ Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, ijmā ‘ ( consensus of the scholars ), qiyās ( analogy ) and ‘ urf ( local custom which is not in direct conflict with established Islamic principles ).

The ghilman, personally responsible only to the Caliph, were to revolt several times during the 860's, killed 4 caliphs, and be replaced by the Mamluk system, based on captured Turkish children, trained and moulded within the Islamic lands.

At times in Muslim history there have been rival claimant caliphs in different parts of the Islamic world, and divisions between the Shi ' a and Sunni communities.

The office originated under the rule of the first Umayyad caliphs ( AH 40 – 85 / 661 – 705 CE ), when the provincial governors of the newly created Islamic empire, unable to adjudicate the many disputes that arose among Muslims living within their territories, began to delegate this function to others.

Deaths of Eminent Men does not include biographies of individuals already sufficiently covered, such as the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and the caliphs.

His period of Caliphate lasted for 60 years, the longest of all the caliphs, either in Egypt or elsewhere in Islamic states.

Islamic Cairo was founded in 969 as the royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliphs, while the actual economic and administrative capital was in nearby Fustat.

This essentially split the Islamic empire into two spheres with two different caliphs, but soon the Umayyad civil war was ended, and Ibn Zubayr lost Egypt and whatever he had of Syria to Marwan I.

His movement gained momentum through the year, and he quickly gathered recruits from Islamic schools.

His " letters on Arabic coinage " were the first serious attempt to compare the historical information gathered from the Islamic coins-bearing up to 150 words – with the information from chronicles, to achieve new insights in medieval Islamic history.

These concepts, like others in Islamic law, came from the " prescriptions, anecdotes, examples, and words of Muhammad, gathered and systematized by commentators according to an inductive, casuistic method.

Warraq gathered world notice through his historiographies of the early centuries of the Islamic timeline and has published works which question mainstream conceptions of the period.

The Dervish State was an early 20th century Somali Sunni Islamic state that was established by Muhammad Abdullah Hassan (" Mad Mullah "), a religious leader who gathered Somali soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes.

After a tumultuous debate, the details of which are highly contested, those who gathered there gave their allegiance, or bay ' ah, to Abu Bakr as the new leader of the Islamic community.

" Jewish and Islamic sources describe a similar book, intended to preserve “ the primordial wisdom of paradise for Adam and his generations ” and also “ the genealogy of the entire human race " Described elsewhere in the LDS canon ( D & C 107: 53-56 ) is the story of how Adam gathered his posterity three years prior to his death, and “ predicted whatsoever should befall his posterity unto the latest generation .” Though unknown in the Bible, similar stories are told in several ancient pseudepigraphal sources.

The new tables were based on earlier astronomical works and observations by Islamic astronomers, adding observations by astronomers Alfonso had gathered in Toledo, among them several Jewish scholars, like Yehuda ben Moshe and Isaac ibn Sid.