On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period – poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example – seem to have worsened in this era which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century.

The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon, in modern-day France.

His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by Giorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years ( from 1504 – 1508 ) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates.

An extended period of strained relations between the crown and the Popes of Rome took place, known as the " archiepiscopal conflicts ".

During the closure period, a temporary ice rink is operating at Popes Road in Brixton.

Popes during this period whose tombs are unknown and who may have been buried in the Lateran basilica include: Pope John XVII ( 1003 ), Pope John XVIII ( 1003 – 1009 ), and Pope Alexander II ( 1061 – 1073 ).

Avignon became the residence of the Popes in 1309, when the Gascon Bertrand de Goth, as Pope Clement V, unwilling to face the violent chaos of Rome after his election ( 1305 ), moved the Papal Curia to Avignon, a period known as the Avignon Papacy.

When the popes returned to Rome after the period of the Avignon papacy, the buildings of the basilica became a temporary Palace of the Popes due to the deteriorated state of the Lateran Palace.

During this period, the Popes were influenced strongly by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives.

Martin claimed that Popes John XXIII and Paul VI were freemasons during a certain period and that photographs and other detailed documents proving this were in the possession of the Vatican State Secretariat.

From their clan came several Popes in the period between 914 and 1049.

Woollcombe also states that no one questioned the apostolicity of the See of Alexandria despite the fact that its Popes were consecrated by the college of presbyters up till the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325.

This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name ( Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV ) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.

Despite this, " there is ample evidence that the medieval clergy were the main practitioners of magic and therefore the owners, transcribers, and circulators of grimoires " while several grimoires were actually attributed to various Popes.

In fact several Popes were suspected of having a strong interest or practicing alchemy and it was only with Pope John XXII, who was himself suspected of being a magician, that sorcery became another form of heresy and thus liable of persecution by the Inquisition.

In fact, Popes Vigilius, Pelagius I ( 556-61 ), Pelagius II ( 579-90 ), and Gregory the Great ( 590-604 ) were only aware the Fifth Council specifically dealt with the Three Chapters and make no mention of Origenism or Universalism, nor spoke as if they knew of its condemnation even though Gregory the Great was opposed to the belief of universalism.

Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force.

Popes like Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy.

This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the " White Pope " ( since the time of Pope Pius V the Popes dresses in white ) and the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples ( formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith ), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the " Red Pope " in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic.

Rosemary and Darroll Pardoe, authors of The Female Pope: The Mystery of Pope Joan, theorize that if a female pope did exist, a more plausible time frame is 1086 and 1108, when there were several Antipopes ; during this time the reign of the legitimate Popes Victor III, Urban II, and Paschal II was not always established in Rome, since the city was occupied by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and later sacked by the Normans.

It has been speculated that they originally were Roman bidets or imperial birthing stools, which because of their age and imperial links were used in ceremonies by Popes intent on highlighting their own imperial claims ( as they did also with their Latin title, Pontifex Maximus ).

Popes Martin IV – V were actually the second and third popes by that name.

Because of the similarity of the names Marinus and Martinus, Popes Marinus I and Marinus II were, in some sources, mistakenly given the name Martinus ( and were then listed respectively as Martinus II and Martinus III ).

Because of the similarity of the names Marinus and Martinus, Popes Marinus I and Marinus II were, in some sources, mistakenly given the name Martinus ( and were then listed respectively as Martinus II and Martinus III ).

Shortly after his accession at the conclusion of the papal election of December 1187, Clement succeeded in allaying the conflict which had existed for half a century between the Popes and the citizens of Rome, with an agreement by which the citizens were allowed to elect their magistrates, while the nomination of the governor of the city remained in the hands of the Pope.

These decrees, and others made by preceding Popes, were confirmed by Pope Clement XI ( 1700 – 21 ) in 1704.

There have been other Popes who were suspected of sorcery, for example John XXI ( 1276 – 77 ) and Benedict XII ( 1334 – 42 ).

* Saint Malachy, the Archbishop of Armagh, to whom were attributed several miracles and a vision of the identity of the last 112 Popes

In the fresco by Melozzo da Forlì he is accompanied by his Della Rovere and Riario nephews, not all of whom were made cardinals: the protonotary apostolic Pietro Riario ( on his right ), the future Pope Julius II standing before him, and Girolamo Riario and Giovanni della Rovere behind the kneeling Platina, author of the first humanist history of the Popes.

Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes.

As they were not particularly strong fortifications, the Popes relied instead on the immensely strong fortifications of their palace, the " Palais des Papes ".

In 1995, the Italian Passionist priest and theologian Enrico Zoffoli published a critique of the Way that accused the movement of heresy: “ Their doctrine is seriously compromised with errors against fundamental dogmatics of the Church, the Popes and the Councils.

These had been opposed by previous Popes such as Leo XIII, and are in violation of existing Canon Law, the law of the Church.

Throughout Christian history, some Popes, bishops and some Christian princes stepped up to protect Jews.

* " The Popes and the Jews in the Middle Ages ," Edward A. Synan, Macmillan, New York, 1965

* " Three Popes and the Jews " Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967

Three Popes and the Jews.

In 1418 a synod convoked by the Jews in Forlì sent a deputation with costly gifts to Martin V asking that he abolish the oppressive laws promulgated by Antipope Benedict XIII and that he grant the Jews those privileges which had been accorded them under previous Popes.

" The Polish Council of Christians and Jews has offered to finance a plaque with explanations of the blood libel and information about the official statements by various Popes rejecting the accusation ".

Three Popes and the Jews 1967, Hawthorn Books

A detailed account is found in historian David Kertzer's book The Popes Against the Jews

Pope John Paul II gave access to some formerly secret Vatican archives to scholars, one of whom, David Kertzer, used information thus obtained in his book The Popes Against the Jews.

His 2001 book, The Popes Against the Jews, has been published in nine languages.

* The Popes Against the Jews: The Vatican ’ s Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism.