With the beginning of the slow decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of Czarist Russia in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens, and several Turkic groups left their ancestral homelands and settled in Anatolia.

In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, and one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history.

Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the great road which debouched from the Cilician Gates, made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the Byzantine Empire and the early Muslim invaders.

Following Muhammad's death in 632, the early leaders of the Muslim nation were called Khalifat Rasul Allah, the political successors to the messenger of God ( referring to Muhammad ).

The early Muslim compilations of knowledge in the Middle Ages included many comprehensive works.

An early Muslim tradition is that the Negus Ashama ibn Abjar offered asylum to a group of Muslims fleeing persecution during Muhammad's life ( 615 ), but Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by then – although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least as late as 702.

The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities.

Progress in theory and methodology happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi ` i ( 767 – 820 ), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah.

Nevertheless, Muslim writers sometimes note those elements of the Gospel of Baranabas that stand in accord with standard Qur ' anic teaching, such as the denial of Jesus as being Son of God and the prophetic prediction by Jesus of the coming Messenger of God and, consequently, some Muslims are inclined to regard these specific elements as representing the survival of suppressed early Jesus traditions much more compatible with Islam.

The Visigoths under Alaric I sacked Rome in 410, defeated Attila at the Battle of the Catalunian Plains in 451, and founded a Kingdom in Aquitaine which was pushed to Hispania by the Franks in 507, converted to Catholicism by the late sixth century, and in the early eighth century conquered by the Muslim Moors.

Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in many Muslim kingdoms in India by as early as 1366 AD.

Other early versions of mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī ( c. AD 1000 ); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī ( c. AD 1015 ); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers ; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song ( c. AD 1090 ) during the Song Dynasty.

The word sunnah ( custom ) is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community.

Hadith studies are a number of methods of evaluation developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad.

He believed that imitation of the early Muslims and the restoration of Sharia law were essential to Islam, that secular, Westernizing Muslims were actually agents of the West serving Western interests, and that the " plundering " of Muslim lands was part of a long-term conspiracy against Islam by the Christian West.

Some Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Kathir and Kisa ' i, reproduced Jewish traditions, transmitted through early Jewish converts to Islam, regarding Isaiah.

For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the early 19th century extracts were published in German and English based on manuscripts discovered in the Middle East, containing abridged versions of Ibn Juzayy's Arabic text.

Thus, " the onus of being the last ' People of the Book ' engendered an ethos of " early on and the establishment of important book repositories throughout the Muslim world has occurred ever since.

Clerical and secular scholars from Europe turned their eyes to Iberian Peninsula as the arts and sciences prospered in an early Spanish " renaissance " under the patronage of Alfonso X, who was continuing the tradition of ( relatively ) enlightened and tolerant convivencia established by the Muslim emirate several centuries earlier.

It was also renowned for the minarets of its mosques ( four of which were still in use in the early part of the 20th century ) and the Muslim burial grounds.

In addition, significant numbers of the Tongas live in the north ; Ngonis -- an offshoot of the Zulus who came from South Africa in the early 19th century — live in the lower northern and lower central regions ; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim, predominate in the Southern Region of the country and live in a wide band from Blantyre and Zomba north to Lake Malawi and east to the border with Mozambique.

Egypt became occupied by Muslim Arabs as early as 640, and since then so many mosques have appeared throughout the country that its capital city, Cairo, has acquired the nickname of city of a thousand minarets.

According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims gave the Muslims permission to take their churches and synagogues.

Widely believed to be a synonym for Mecca, it is said to be more specifically the early name for the valley located therein, while Muslim scholars generally use it to refer to the sacred area of the city that immediately surrounds and includes the Kaaba.

Like all early Germanic rulers, he was heavily involved in ecclesiastical disputes ; in 895, at the Diet of Tribur, he presided over a dispute between the Episcopal sees of Bremen, Hamburg and Cologne over jurisdictional authority, which saw Bremen and Hamburg remain a combined see, independent of the see of Cologne.

The rulers of Mercia were generally the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings from the mid-7th to the early 9th centuries, but are not accorded the title of bretwalda by the Chronicle, which is generally thought to be because of the anti-Mercian bias of the Chroniclers.

Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain.

Elections were used as early in history as ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and throughout the Medieval period to select rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope.

The dates, names and achievements of the Essex kings, like those of most early rulers in the Heptarchy, remain conjectural.

According to Charles Holcombe, the early Tujue population was rather heterogeneous and many of the names of Göktürk rulers are not even Turkic.

Although belonging to the Bronze Age, they were the forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter's demand for iron goods.

In the early eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty, linked to the rulers of France, replaced the Habsburgs on the throne of Spain.

In the early 10th century the Norwegian rulers of Dublin took over the Danish kingdom of York.

It was reported in early 900 AD that the rulers of Kabul were Muslims with non-Muslims living close by.

In each of these, there were in the early Middle Ages a number of feudal lords who often were just as powerful, and sometimes more so than the rulers themselves.

** List of Russian rulers: early Grand Dukes and Tsars

It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral.

The support of the Frankish mayors of the palace ( maior domos ), and later the early Pippinid and Carolingian rulers, was essential for Boniface's work.

During the early 1900s, the game was banned in Russia because the rulers at the time believed that playing the game had an adverse effect on players ' eyesight.

This variation might suggest the early rulers came from a hybrid Anglo-British dynasty or that the rule of early Wessex shifted between more than one royal clan, but this is conjecture.

Taken literally, such usage would suggest a strong affinity of early Frankish rulers for the prestige of Roman culture, which they may have embraced as allies and federates of the Empire during the previous century.

After Mercia was annexed by Wessex in the early 10th century, the West Saxon rulers divided it into shires modelled after their own system, cutting across traditional Mercian divisions.

The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers — Grand Princes and Tsars — under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts.

The support of the Mayors of the Palace and later, the early Pippinid and Carolingian rulers, was important to Boniface's success.

Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, rivalled that of the Han Dynasty.

Sharing the language and culture of the Shang, the early Zhou rulers, through conquest and colonization, established a large imperial territory wherein states as far as Shandong acknowledged Zhou rulership and took part in elite culture.

The County of Castile, which originally included Cantabria ( excepting Liébana ), part of Vizcaya, most of Burgos and parts of La Rioja., became the leading force in the northern Christian states ' 800-year Reconquista (" reconquest ") of central and southern Spain from the Muslim rulers who had dominated most of the peninsula since the early 8th century.