The older scales were based on theoretical estimates of the conversion efficiency of kinetic energy into light.

However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of " theoretical stages " to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays.

Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896 demonstrated another model with a theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrast to the 10 percent efficiency of the steam engine.

Specialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations.

Such processes and devices can only be driven by convertible energy, and have a theoretical maximum efficiency when converting energy to work.

Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of π / 4.

Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80 %- 85 %.

In any case, fully understanding an engine and its efficiency requires gaining a good understanding of the ( possibly simplified or idealized ) theoretical model, the practical nuances of an actual mechanical engine, and the discrepancies between the two.

The maximum theoretical efficiency of a heat engine ( which no engine ever attains ) is equal to the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends divided by the temperature at the hot end, all expressed in absolute temperature or kelvins.

The theoretical maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between.

Since, by the second law of thermodynamics, this is statistically improbable to the point of exclusion, the Carnot efficiency is a theoretical upper bound on the reliable efficiency of any process.

Operators of hydroelectric plants will compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency.

Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines, and as such their theoretical efficiency can be calculated by idealized thermodynamic cycles.

As the theoretical model suggests, for a Pelton wheel working at maximum efficiency, φ is about 1 / 2.

The amount of air which is actually inhaled, compared with the theoretical amount if the engine could maintain atmospheric pressure, is called volumetric efficiency.

Other reports quote the theoretical maximum efficiency of electrolysis as being between 80 % and 94 %.

To put this in perspective relative to another energy conversion process, the photosynthetic efficiency theoretical limit is around 11 %.

Modern designs allow performance approaching the theoretical maximum Carnot efficiency and the largest built in 1999 by the USA generated 250 kW.

This definition of efficiency differs from that of Pareto efficiency, and forms the basis of the theoretical argument against the existence of market failures.

In 2001 Bernstein circulated " Circuits for integer factorization: a proposal ," which caused a stir as it potentially suggested that if physical hardware implementations could be close to their theoretical efficiency, then perhaps current views about how large numbers have to be before they are impractical to factor might be off by a factor of three.

Use of the Kalina cycle during production can also increase energy efficiency.

This occurs because internal combustion engines are heat engines, and higher efficiency is created because higher compression ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the exhaust temperature.

The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio.

Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved and is much better than class A.

In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the larger is the potential thermal efficiency of the cycle.

The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today ranges from 3 percent ( 97 percent waste heat ) for the OTEC ocean power proposal through 25 percent for most automotive engines, to 45 percent for a supercritical coal-fired power station, to about 60 percent for a steam-cooled combined cycle gas turbine.

Empirically, no heat engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine.

Figure 2 and Figure 3 show variations on Carnot cycle efficiency.

In steam engines the point in the piston cycle at which the steam inlet valve closes is called the cutoff and this can often be controlled to adjust the torque supplied by the engine and improve efficiency.

Also, changes in the manufacturing flow process lead to shorter cycle times, meaning improved responsiveness and efficiency in meeting customer demand.

In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency.

Keep in mind that turbine efficiency is different from the cycle efficiency of the engine using the turbine.

This is different from the cycle efficiencies of the plant or engine which are between approximately 25 % and 42 %, and are limited by any irreversibilities to be below the Carnot cycle efficiency.

Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not often used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices.

GE H series power generation gas turbine: in combined cycle configuration, this 480-megawatt unit has a rated Thermodynamic efficiency | thermal efficiency of 60 %.

Due to the reduced compression stroke of a Miller cycle engine, a higher overall cylinder pressure ( supercharger pressure plus mechanical compression ) is possible, and therefore a Miller cycle engine has better efficiency.

These engines are generally found on hybrid electric vehicles, where efficiency is the goal, and the power lost compared to the Miller cycle is made up through the use of electric motors.

To light industry, the economies of being on one floor are much slighter, but efficiency engineers usually believe in them, and manufacturers looking for ways to cut costs cannot be prevented from turning to efficiency engineers.

Based on this definition, the drain efficiency cannot exceed 25 % for a class A amplifier that is supplied drain bias current through resistors ( because RF signal has its zero level at about 50 % of the input DC ).

The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations.

Even if a self-sustaining fusion reaction cannot be produced, it might be possible to use fusion to boost the efficiency of another propulsion system, such as a VASIMR engine.

If a block cipher ( not operating in a stream cipher mode ) were to be used in this type of application, the designer would need to choose either transmission efficiency or implementation complexity, since block ciphers cannot directly work on blocks shorter than their block size.

In both cases, the use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations: loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty ( if at all ), penguins cannot fly, and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of underwater diving.

They prefer large carcasses such as deer or cattle which they spot by looking for other scavengers, which cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor.

In weak-form efficiency, future prices cannot be predicted by analyzing prices from the past.

To test for strong-form efficiency, a market needs to exist where investors cannot consistently earn excess returns over a long period of time.

Any test of this proposition faces the joint hypothesis problem, where it is impossible to ever test for market efficiency, since to do so requires the use of a measuring stick against which abnormal returns are compared-one cannot know if the market is efficient if one does not know if a model correctly stipulates the required rate of return.

Antennas that are required to be very small compared to the wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very directional.

; Better power efficiency: LCDs filter the light emitted from a backlight, allowing a small fraction of light through so they cannot show true black, while an inactive OLED element does not produce light or consume power.

“ Therefore, the committee desires to express to the public as its firm belief that both the public and the employees aforesaid have equitable rights and interests in the said mill which cannot be modified or diverted without due process of law ; that the employees have the right to continuous employment in the said mill during efficiency and good behavior without regard to religious, political or economic opinions or associations ; that it is against public policy and subversive of the fundamental principles of American liberty that a whole community of workers should be denied employment or suffer any other social detriment on account of membership in a church, a political party or a trade union ; that it is our duty as American citizens to resist by every legal and ordinary means the unconstitutional, anarchic and revolutionary policy of the Carnegie Company, which seems to evince a contempt public and private interests and a disdain the public conscience.

Land-based aircraft cannot rescue survivors, and many helicopters are limited in their capacity to carry survivors and in their fuel efficiency compared to fixed-wing aircraft.

Under the theory of the second best, for example, if the fulfillment of a subset of optimal conditions cannot be met under any circumstances, it is incorrect to conclude that the fulfillment of any subset of optimal conditions will necessarily result in an increase in allocative efficiency.

Warren Samuels in his 2007 book, The Legal-Economic Nexus, argues, " efficiency in the Pareto sense cannot dispositively be applied to the definition and assignment of rights themselves, because efficiency requires an antecedent determination of the rights ( 23-4 ).

Its main disadvantage is that it cannot simultaneously have low cost and high power efficiency.

For example, Rader's or Bluestein's algorithm can be used to handle large prime factors that cannot be decomposed by Cooley – Tukey, or the prime-factor algorithm can be exploited for greater efficiency in separating out relatively prime factors.

In the PPF, all points on the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency ( i. e., no more output can be achieved from the given inputs ); all points inside the frontier ( such as A ) can be produced but productively inefficient ; all points outside the curve ( such as X ) cannot be produced with the given, existing resources.

" Any large organization, Michels pointed out, has to create a bureaucracy in order to maintain its efficiency as it becomes larger — many decisions have to be made daily that cannot be made by large numbers of disorganized people.

The main disadvantage of Peltier coolers is that they cannot simultaneously have low cost and high power efficiency.