Emerging research is showing that hormonal contraception methods like " the pill " ( which rely on estrogen and progesterone together ) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone binding globulin ( SHBG ).

Most recently, estrogen has been used in experimental research as a way to treat patients suffering from bulimia nervosa, in addition to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which is the established standard for treatment in bulimia cases.

Therefore, it is frequently used in research settings to distinguish between the effects of testosterone caused by binding to the androgen receptor and those caused by testosterone's conversion to estradiol and subsequent binding to estrogen receptors.

In 2004 he received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research for his research on estrogen receptors.

Investigations and research has been undertaken to study the use of aromatase inhibitors to stimulate ovulation, and also to suppress estrogen production.

Hormone replacement when used in menopausal women in the form of estrogen and progesterone implants is cited as having potential to lead to tachyphylaxis, but that citation is based on a single study done in 1990 and no followup research is available to support this interpretation.

2004 and 2005 studies led by researcher Philippa Darbre, hypothesizes that particular substances in deodorants, such as preservatives called parabens, or bolts such as aluminium chloride used in antiperspirants, get into the bloodstream or accumulate in breast tissue, where they enhance or emulate the effects of estrogen, which stimulates the growth of cancerous breast cells.

Factors that are known to cause variation in the levels of GH and IGF-1 in the circulation include an individuals genetic make-up, the time of day, their age, sex, exercise status, stress levels, genetics, nutrition level and body mass index ( BMI ), disease state, race, estrogen status and xenobiotic intake.

Perimenopausal women in the Women ’ s Health Initiative who received estrogen had significantly lower coronary artery calcification compared to the women who didn ’ t take estrogen .” As Dr. Rubinow states, “ given the mortality and morbidity associated with depression and heart disease, and the tremendous increase in risk of these disorders during the perimenopause, it is critical that we identify those women who will be helped by estradiol .”

The ovarian hormones estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone are involved in the regulation of hundreds of bodily functions ; it is believed by some doctors that hormone therapy programs mitigate surgical menopause side effects such as increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and female sexual dysfunction.

Factors that are known to cause variation in the levels of growth hormone ( GH ) and IGF-1 in the circulation include: genetic make-up, the time of day, age, sex, exercise status, stress levels, nutrition level and body mass index ( BMI ), disease state, race, estrogen status and xenobiotic intake.

Females that have received estradiol as a mismating shot ( abortifacient ) in diestrus are at risk for more severe disease because estrogen increases the number of progesterone receptors in the endometrium.

The trial was ended early in 2002 when the researchers found that the subjects with estrogen plus progestin had a greater incidence of coronary heart disease, breast cancer, stroke, and pulmonary embolism than the subjects receiving placebo.

By the early 1990s, many physicians had come to interpret results from previous clinical trials and studies using experimental animals as indicating that administration of an estrogen supplement to postmenopausal women would lower the incidence of cardiovascular disease.

In advanced disease, tamoxifen is now only recognised as effective in estrogen receptor positive ( ER +) patients, but the early trials did not select ER + patients, and by the mid 1980s the clinical trial picture was not showing a major advantage for tamoxifen.

In men, they are related to high estrogen levels secondary to liver disease.

The association of LAM with women of childbearing age suggests that hormonal stimulation plays a role in the disease process, and several approaches to treatment involve diminishing the effect of estrogen.

It is believed that the fruit boosts the levels of estrogen, which in turn increases the risk of developing the disease.

There are 13 clinical trials ( January, 2012 ) assessing potential effects of grape seed extracts on human diseases, such as breast cancer, blood estrogen levels in postmenopausal women, and coronary artery disease.

Lacking the estrogen of combined pills, they are not associated with increased risks of DVT or heart disease.

The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen and a sign of greater fertility, but the researchers said that " Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size.

In males, estrogen regulates certain functions of the reproductive system important to the maturation of sperm and may be necessary for a healthy libido.

Compulsions in male lab mice, such as those in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder ( OCD ), may be caused by low estrogen levels.

Contrarily, local application of estrogen has been shown to block the ability of fluvoxamine to slow serotonin clearance, suggesting that the same pathways which are involved in SSRI efficacy may also be affected by components of local estrogen signaling pathways.

In particular, estrogen applied topically may have a different spectrum of side-effects than when administered orally, and transdermal estrogens do not affect clotting as they are absorbed directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding first-pass metabolism in the liver.

Certain foods such as soy may also suppress the proliferative effects of estrogen and are used as an alternative to hormone therapy.

Under certain circumstances, estrogen may also be used in males for treatment of prostate cancer .< ref name =" pmid15046698 ">

Hyperestrogenemia ( elevated levels of estrogen ) may be a result of exogenous administration of estrogen or estrogen-like substances, or may be a result of physiologic conditions such as pregnancy.

During the germination period of reproduction the fish are exposed to low levels of estrogen which may cause reproductive dysfunction to male fish.

A 2008 study analyzing the sexual fantasies of 200 heterosexual men by using the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire exam, determined that males with a pronounced degree of fetish interest had a greater number of older brothers, a high 2D: 4D digit ratio ( which would indicate excessive prenatal estrogen exposure ), and an elevated probability of being left-handed, suggesting that disturbed hemispheric brain lateralization may play a role in deviant attractions.

However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen.

It seems that the high risk of aortic dissection during pregnancy in women with Turner syndrome may be due to the increased hemodynamic load rather than the high estrogen rate.

Oral micronised estradiol and other oral estrogen preparations may result in up to 10 fold higher levels of circulating estrone sulphate than transdermally administered estradiol at comparable or even higher doses.

SHBG binds estrogen and testosterone in the blood and this may result in a clinically significant reduction in the bioavailability of these hormones.

They may function by reducing or eliminating menstrual flow and providing estrogen support.

To counteract such side effects some estrogen may have to be given back ( add-back therapy ).

In some cases, it may also begin beyond menopause and it has also been described in men taking high-dose estrogen therapy.

He may well be taller than average, as the production of sex hormones in puberty — more specifically, estrogen via aromatization of testosterone — stops long bone growth.

Researchers believe that ellagic acid may also work to reduce the harmful effects of estrogen that create breast cancer cells.

From puberty onwards, depending on estrogen and activity levels, the hymenal tissue may be thicker, and the opening is often fimbriated or erratically shaped.

The α-form of the estrogen receptor appears to be the most important in regulating bone turnover.

There is uncertainty and controversy about whether estrogen should be recommended in women in the first decade after the menopause.

** Sex drive is dependent on androgen levels only in the presence of estrogen, but without estrogen, free testosterone level actually decreases sexual desire ( instead of increases sex drive ), as demonstrated for those women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder, and the sexual desire in these women can be restored by administration of estrogen ( using oral contraceptive ).

Clinical recovery from postpartum, perimenopause, and postmenopause depression has been shown to be effective after levels of estrogen were stabilized and / or restored.

Among the older postmenopausal women studied as part of the Women's Health Initiative ( WHI ), an orally administered conjugated equine estrogen supplement was found to be associated with an increased risk of dangerous blood clotting.

They have identified the presence of androgen, estrogen, and progesterone receptors in epithelial cells, granular cells and fibroblasts of VF, suggesting that some of the structural changes seen in the VF could be due to hormonal influences.

In others studies, it has been suggested that the estrogen / androgen ratio be partly responsible for the voice changes observed at menopause.

Estrogen therapy does not make a woman with nonfunctional ovaries fertile, but it plays an important role in assisted reproduction ; the health of the uterus must be maintained with estrogen if an eligible woman with Turner Syndrome wishes to use IVF ( using donated oocytes ).

After menopause, estrogen continues to be produced in other tissues, notably the ovaries, but also in bone, blood vessels and even in the brain.

Thus it would seem that the prescription of oral estrogen therapy should be at the lowest available dose to minimise effects on circulating estrone sulphate and SHBG.

That is, giving estrogen within a year or two of menopause has beneficial effects, but giving estrogen in women more than five years beyond the menopause can actually be harmful.