* Giovanni Colonna ( 1295-1348 ), influential cardinal during the Avignon papacy.

Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential popes in the history of the papacy.

The book was highly influential in reviving Roman patriotism and respect for ancient Rome, while presenting the papacy as a continuation of the Roman Empire.

He was one of the cardinal electors in the 2005 papal conclave yet was not generally considered a strong candidate for the papacy himself ; instead, he was described as a highly influential insider, potentially playing the role of a " kingmaker " at the conclave.

His social teachings became influential during the papacy of Leo XIII and his encyclical Rerum Novarum.

He also attempted to subordinate Clementhorpe Priory to Godstow Abbey, which provoked an appeal from Prioress Alice of Clementhorpe to the papacy.

the expedition against Barbastro is above all a French crusade, inspired by Cluny and launched through Cluny's persuasion by the papacy of Alexander II, the purpose of which is to preserve a hard-pressed Aragonese kingdom from imminent invasion and possible destruction at the hands of the Muslims, following Ramiro I's shattering defeat and death at Graus on 8 May 1063.

Cluny was not known for its severity or asceticism, but the abbots of Cluny supported the revival of the papacy and the reforms of Pope Gregory VII.

Guido, as he was called before his elevation to the papacy, was the son of William I, Count of Burgundy.

While the Avignon Papacy did much to advance the reputation of wines from Burgundy, the papacy also promoted viticulture in the surrounding area, more specifically the area 5 – 10 km north of Avignon, close to the banks of the Rhône River.

* 1294 – Saint Celestine V resigns the papacy after only five months ; Celestine hoped to return to his previous life as an ascetic hermit.

However, this overlooks those parts of scripture which provide for the doctrine of the " Two Swords " and for the medieval Roman Catholic concept of the powers of kings to protect the Christian Constitution of states, to defend and extend the boundaries of Christendom by lawful means only, to protect and defend the innocent, the weak, the poor and the vulnerable, and to protect the church and the papacy with the king's own life, if necessary.

This battle against what he saw as an imperialised papacy and its supporters, the " sects ," as he called the monastic orders, takes up a large space not only in his later works as the Trialogus, Dialogus, Opus evangelicum, and in his sermons, but also in a series of sharp tracts and polemical productions in Latin and English ( of which those issued in his later years have been collected as " Polemical Writings ").

One of the youngest popes, he was the only man to have been Pope on more than one occasion and the only man ever to have sold the papacy.

Pressure for an ecumenical council also grew as the only way to breach the Western Schism, but the conciliar movement made no headway during Boniface's papacy.

On 29 April 1670, the papacy was offered to him by fifty-nine Cardinals present at the election ; only two being against him.

Gregory died in Pisa on 17 December 1187 of a fever after holding the papacy for only 57 days.

It is the business of the pope to look after the interests of the Roman empire, since the empire derives its origin and its final authority from the papacy ; its origin, because it was originally transferred from Greece by and for the sake of the papacy ... its final authority, because the emperor is raised to his position by the pope who blesses him, crowns him and invests him with the empire .... Therefore, since three persons have lately been elected king by different parties, namely the youth son of Henry VI, Philip Hohenstaufen, brother of Henry VI, and Otto Brunswick, of the Welf family, so also three things must be taken into account in regard to each one, namely: the legality, the suitability and the expediency of his election ...... Far be it from us that we should defer to man rather than to God, or that we should fear the countenance of the powerful .... On the foregoing grounds, then, we decide that the youth should not at present be given the empire ; we utterly reject Philip for his manifest unfitness and we order his usurpation to be resisted by all .... since Otto is not only himself devoted to the church, but comes from devout ancestors on both sides ..... therefore we decree that he ought to be accepted and supported as king, and ought to be given the crown of empire, after the rights of the Roman church have been secured.

* September 28 – Pope John Paul I dies after only 33 days of papacy.

The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even the expected protection for the papacy.

* December 24 – Pope Boniface VIII succeeds Pope Celestine V as the 193rd pope after Celestine V abdicates the papacy on December 13, only five months after reluctantly accepting his surprise election on July 5, wishing to return to his life as an ascetic hermit.

Distinguished humanists might sneer at him as " a garrulous sophist "; but from this time his ambition was not only to be the greatest scientific authority in Germany but also the champion of the papacy and of the traditional church order.

After Cornelius ’ s appointment to the papacy, Novatian became more rigorous in his philosophy, convinced that bishops could not pardon the worst of sins, and that such sins could only be reconciled at the Last Judgment.

Pius X was the only pope in the 20th century with extensive pastoral experience at the parish level, and pastoral concerns permeated his papacy ; he favoured the use of the vernacular in catechesis.

It was not until another five years had passed, and only after further negotiations between Frederick, Innocent III, and Honorius III – who succeeded to the papacy after Innocent's death in 1216 – that Frederick was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by Honorius III, on 22 November 1220.

This council not only continued the Hildebrandine reforms by sharpening the discipline of the clergy, but marks an epoch in the history of the papacy by its famous regulation of future elections to the Holy See.

But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical reformer of Grosseteste's time.

In Protestant post-reformation countries, Tarot cards in particular used images of the legendary Pope Joan, linking in to the mythology of how Joan, disguised as a man, was elected to the papacy and was only supposedly discovered to be a woman when she gave birth.

Coenwulf asserted in his letter that Offa wanted the new archdiocese created out of enmity for Jaenberht, the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time of the division ; but Leo responded that the only reason the papacy agreed to the creation was because of the size of the kingdom of Mercia.

At the time there was antagonism between not only the two ruling brothers, but between the king of the Lombards, Desiderius, and the papacy.

It was only with difficulty, however, that Pope Paschal II was persuaded to grant the pallium, as the papacy was attempting to again assert papal jurisdiction over the English Church.

Confirming the papacy in the possession of wide territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend and protect the church.

Somewhat naive concerning the complex power struggle between the papacy and the empire, Lothair also consented to several symbolic acts that were subsequently interpreted by Rome as signaling acceptance of papal confirmation of his position.

The cardinals elected this same monk as Pope Celestine V, whose main acts as pope were to reinstate the strict conclave, and to resign the papacy.

Spalatin would have dissuaded Luther again and again from publishing books or engaging in overt acts against the papacy, but when the thing was done none was so ready to translate the book or to justify the act.

The bitterness occasioned by this advice will be better understood when it is remembered that at that time the papacy was at war with the Florentines and was in dire straits.

When the papacy instigated the Counter-Reformation, using agents sent to his court, Rudolf backed those who he thought were the most neutral in the debate, not taking a side or trying to effect restraint, thus leading to political chaos and threatening to provoke civil war.

The monarch's struggle with the papacy resulted in a war that ravaged through the Holy Roman Empire from 1077 until the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

" His abilities as a statesman were soon tested as Florence was immediately faced with war with the papacy.

Although he failed to prevent war with the papacy, Salutati soon became the most celebrated chancellor in all of Italy and a master of the formal letter.

Some cities acquired a form of autonomy ( the comuni ); they were often at war with each other in the context of the more general conflict between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire or between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines.

He was expected to attend all council meetings, and he performed the negotiations with the papacy about the war in 1337.

Large food shipments and information about, and contacts with, prisoners of war were to be the first steps for a better understanding of the papacy in Europe.

The Farnese and the papacy fought a stalemate war and the Pope surrendered and agreed to treaty terms only months before his death in 1644.

Thus in 1540, when the Papal forces of Pope Paul III ousted the Baglioni family from Perugia in the brief war over salt taxes locally called the " Salt War " ( Guerra del Sale ), Deruta sided with the papacy against Perugia, an alliance that gained it a reduction in taxes.