Since there is a continual loss of micrometeoritic material in space because of the radiation effects, there must be a continual replenishment: otherwise, micrometeorites would have disappeared from interplanetary space.

The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state ( by declaring that there was no state below this ), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.

The advantage of this technique is that only one radiation source is used ; among the disadvantages are that the high-current pulses reduce lamp lifetime, and that the technique can only be used for relatively volatile elements, as only those exhibit sufficient self-reversal to avoid dramatic loss of sensitivity.

The reality is more complex: the atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation ( with important exceptions for " window " bands ), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport.

The radiation environment near Io in particular was very unhealthy for Galileos systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable.

Finally, any energy loss not through radiation that is redirected precisely to aft but is instead conducted away by engine supports, radiated in some other direction, or lost via neutrinos or so will further degrade the efficiency.

Likewise, if the hydrogen is heated during collection, thermal radiation will represent an energy loss, and hence also drag ; so an effective scoop must collect and compress the hydrogen without significant heating.

This, coupled with the loss of dense body hair, caused early human skin to endure excess UV-B radiation and xeric stress.

However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as PSR B1913 + 16.

The gain may be broken down into three factors ; the antenna gain ( the directional redistribution of the power ), the radiation efficiency ( accounting for ohmic losses in the antenna ), and lastly the loss due to mismatch between the antenna and transmitter.

Thus the net cloud forcing of the radiation budget is a loss of about 13 W / m².

Clothing heat loss occurs due to wind, radiation of heat into space, and conductive bridging.

Window insulation film can be applied in weatherization applications to reduce incoming thermal radiation in summer and loss in winter.

Rates of bodily heat loss are determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation.

Synchrotron radiation may occur in accelerators either as a nuisance, causing undesired energy loss in particle physics contexts, or as a deliberately produced radiation source for numerous laboratory applications.

This means that no information loss is expected in black holes ( since no such loss exists in the quantum field theory ), and the radiation emitted by a black hole is probably the usual thermal radiation.

Residents have to cope with losing municipal services, food and gas shortages and, ultimately, the loss of loved ones to radiation sickness.

At the same time, it has a very low heat conduction coefficient and can be made nearly transparent ( 15 – 20 % loss in a typical cooktop ) for radiation in the infrared wavelengths.

The primary mode of heat transfer impeded by insulation is conduction, but insulation also reduces heat loss by all three heat transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Porous insulations accomplish this by trapping air so that significant convective heat loss is eliminated, leaving only conduction and minor radiation transfer.

Until Moscow resumed nuclear testing last September 1, the US and UK had released more than twice as much radiation into the atmosphere as the Russians, and the fallout from the earlier blasts is still coming down.

On the one hand, the Public Health Service declared as recently as October 26 that present radiation levels resulting from the Soviet shots `` do not warrant undue public concern '' or any action to limit the intake of radioactive substances by individuals or large population groups anywhere in the Aj.

The lack of scientific unanimity on the effects of radiation is due in part to insufficient data covering large population groups, from which agreed-on generalizations could be drawn.

This shelter, as shown on page 24, would provide almost absolute protection from fallout radiation.

A family dwelling without a basement provides some natural shielding from fallout radiation.

For the case of Jupiter, the radio emission spectrum is definitely not like the spectrum of a black-body radiator, and it seems very likely that the radiation reaching the earth is a combination of thermal radiation from the atmosphere and non-thermal components.

The low intensity of the radiation from Saturn has limited observations, but again the measured radiation seems to be consistent with a thermal origin.

No attempts to measure the radio emission of the remaining planets have been reported, and, because of their distances, small diameters, or low temperatures, the thermal radiation at radio wave lengths reaching the earth from these sources is expected to be of very low intensity.

Steady radiation which was presumably of thermal origin was observed from Venus at 3.15 and 9.4 cm, and from Mars and Jupiter at 3.15 cm in 1956 ( Mayer, McCullough, and Sloanaker, 1958, A, B, C ), and from Saturn at 3.75 cm in 1957 ( Drake and Ewen, 1958 ).

The concept of apparent black-body temperature is used to describe the radiation received from the moon and the planets.

The received radiation is compared with the radiation from a hypothetical black body which subtends the same solid angle as the visible disk of the planet.

The radio radiation of the sun which is reflected from the moon and planets should be negligible compared with their thermal emission at centimeter wave lengths, except possibly at times of exceptional outbursts of solar radio noise.

Heat transfer by molecular conduction as well as by radiation from the arc column.

The reflection of radiation originating from the anode holder and reflected back to it by the surrounding metal surfaces should also be small because of the peculiar characteristic of the metal surfaces and of the specific geometry.

Estimated production costs of radiation energy from machine and nuclide sources range from $1 to $10 per Aj.

Moderate radiation doses of from 100,000 to 200,000 rads can extend the shelf life ( at 35 F ) of fresh beef from 5 days to 5 or 6 weeks.

This temperature was taken as environmental temperature to which the anode holder was exposed as far as radiation is concerned.

Thus anode cooling occurs mainly through black-body radiation.

The simplest and cheapest variety of sealed X-ray tube has a stationary anode ( the Crookes tube ) and produces ~ 2 kW of X-ray radiation.

The continuous spectrum consists of " bremsstrahlung " radiation: radiation produced when high-energy electrons passing through the tube are progressively decelerated by the material of the tube anode ( the " target ").

Later versions, including the 6L6G, 6L6GA, 6L6GB, 5881, 5932, 7027, and the final version 6L6GC had glass envelopes, which made radiation cooling of the anode easier.

In this type of photoelectrochemical cell, electrolysis of water to hydrogen and oxygen gas occurs when the anode is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation.