Atoms can only be observed individually using special instruments such as the scanning tunneling microscope.

A scanning tunneling microscopy image of single-walled carbon nanotube

With a time-lapse series of scanning tunneling microscopy images, they determined the molecules undergo adsorption, dissociation and diffusion before reacting.

The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.

Examples of scanning probe microscopes are the atomic force microscope ( AFM ), the Scanning tunneling microscope and the photonic force microscope.

The first was the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981, developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.

* ESTM electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope

* PSTM, photon scanning tunneling microscopy

* SPSM spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy

The emergence of nanotechnology in the 1980s was caused by the convergence of experimental advances such as the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 and the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, with the elucidation and popularization of a conceptual framework for the goals of nanotechnology beginning with the 1986 publication of the book Engines of Creation.

These ideas were later realized by the use of the scanning tunneling microscope, the atomic force microscope and other examples of probe microscopy and storage systems such as Millipede, created by researchers at IBM.

A scanning tunneling microscope ( STM ) is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.

A close-up of a simple scanning tunneling microscope head using a platinum – iridium tip.

This type of measurement is called scanning tunneling spectroscopy ( STS ) and typically results in a plot of the local density of states as a function of energy within the sample.

These include photon scanning microscopy ( PSTM ), which uses an optical tip to tunnel photons ; scanning tunneling potentiometry ( STP ), which measures electric potential across a surface ; spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy ( SPSTM ), which uses a ferromagnetic tip to tunnel spin-polarized electrons into a magnetic sample, and atomic force microscopy ( AFM ), in which the force caused by interaction between the tip and sample is measured.

* Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope

* Spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy

* Tersoff, J .: Hamann, D. R .: Theory of the scanning tunneling microscope, Physical Review B 31, 1985, p. 805-813.

A scanning electron microscope ( SEM ) image of a normal red blood cell, a platelet, and a white blood cell.

Also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope.

An image of an ant in a scanning electron microscope

Unlike the TEM, where electrons of the high voltage beam carry the image of the specimen, the electron beam of the scanning electron microscope ( SEM ) does not at any time carry a complete image of the specimen.

Another advantage of SEM is its variety called environmental scanning electron microscope ( ESEM ) can produce images of sufficient quality and resolution with the samples being wet or contained in low vacuum or gas.

An insect sputter coating | coated in gold for viewing with a scanning electron microscope

False-color scanning electron microscope | SEM image of the filter setae of an Antarctic krill.

One exception is the environmental scanning electron microscope, which allows hydrated samples to be viewed in a low-pressure ( up to ) and / or wet environment.

Non-conductive materials can be imaged also by a variable pressure ( or environmental ) scanning electron microscope.

* Environmental scanning electron microscope ( ESEM )

A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil ( yellow ), engulfing anthrax bacteria ( orange ).

* 1978: Theoretical basis of super resolution 4Pi microscopy & design of a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope

Other major types of microscopes are the electron microscope ( both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope ) and the various types of scanning probe microscope.

A widely used modern instrument is the differential scanning calorimeter, a device which allows thermal data to be obtained on small amounts of material.

* The process of CT scanning a historical instrument

The scientific instrument package had a mass of 15. 6 kg ( 34. 4 lb ) and consisted of an STL image-scanning television system ( which replaced the NOTS image scanning infrared television system on Pioneer 1 ), a proportional counter for radiation measurements, an ionization chamber to measure radiation in space, a diaphragm / microphone assembly to detect micrometeorites, a spin-coil magnetometer to measure magnetic fields to 5 microgauss, and temperature-variable resistors to record spacecraft internal conditions.

The scientific instrument package had a mass of 17. 8 kg and consisted of an image scanning infrared television system to study the Moon's surface to a resolution of 0. 5 degrees, an ionization chamber to measure radiation in space, a diaphragm / microphone assembly to detect micrometeorites, a spin-coil magnetometer to measure magnetic fields to 5 microgauss, and temperature-variable resistors to record the spacecraft's internal conditions.

This technique involves the use of an instrument called a scanning Kelvin probe ( SKP ), which measures the voltage, or electrical potential, at pre-set intervals over the surface of an object on which a fingerprint may have been deposited.

One of the most important developments was the “ Basic Six ” pattern, later the “ Basic T ”, developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning.

These risks are strictly controlled as part of the design of the instrument and the scanning protocols used.

Simultaneous Thermal Analysis ( STA ) generally refers to the simultaneous application of Thermogravimetry ( TGA ) and differential scanning calorimetry ( DSC ) to one and the same sample in a single instrument.

Digitizing is the primary way of storing images in a form suitable for transmission and computer processing, whether scanned from two-dimensional analog originals or captured using an image sensor-equipped device such as a digital camera, tomographical instrument such as a CAT scanner, or acquiring precise dimensions from a real-world object, such as a car, using a 3D scanning device.

The instrument operating in RAP scanning mode took two days of along-track data every month.

Such an instrument can record a spectral function without mechanical scanning, although there may be tradeoffs in terms of resolution or sensitivity for instance.

* April 3 — After three passes of MIRO commissioning through more spiral maneuvers, scanning the planet Venus, this instrument checks out well.

Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs within the instrument.

In order to support scanning, the instrument came in two parts, the optics unit on a two-axis gimbal and a fixed electronics unit.

* Focused ion beam, an analytical instrument used in the semiconductor industry ; a technique similar to a scanning electron microscope ( SEM )

The accuracy of these methods depends on the instrument and its spectral wavelength, the measuring or scanning method, the time amount ( versus economy ), the atmospheric situation, the stability of the surface resp.