These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses.

For two centuries Euclid had been taught from two Latin translations taken from an Arabic source ; these contained errors in Book V, the Eudoxian theory of proportion, which rendered it unusable.

When either randomness or uncertainty modeled by probability theory is attributed to such errors, they are " errors " in the sense in which that term is used in statistics ; see errors and residuals in statistics.

Germain's anonymous 1813 submission was still littered with mathematical errors, especially involving double integrals, and it received only an honorable mention because “ the fundamental base of the theory elastic surfaces was not established.

In telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, forward error correction ( FEC ) or channel coding is a technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels.

Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters ( intensity and duration time versus wavelength ) that match experimental results with errors no larger than expected due to some simplifications ( e. g., assuming a uniform temperature in the entire bubble ), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at least roughly explained, although some details of the process remain obscure.

In the next two centuries workers in the theory of errors and in statistics found many different ways of implementing least squares.

At long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can in theory be done by slide rules-though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial.

In applied mathematics, the Wiener process is used to represent the integral of a Gaussian white noise process, and so is useful as a model of noise in electronics engineering, instrument errors in filtering theory and unknown forces in control theory.

The rational expectations theory said that expectations of inflation were equal to what actually happened, with some minor and temporary errors.

With Amos Tversky and others, Kahneman established a cognitive basis for common human errors using heuristics and biases ( Kahneman & Tversky, 1973 ; Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky, 1982 ; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974 ), and developed prospect theory ( Kahneman & Tversky, 1979 ).

The error function is used in measurement theory ( using probability and statistics ), and although its use in other branches of mathematics has nothing to do with the characterization of measurement errors, the name has stuck.

These errors arise predominantly from social cognition and the theory in that how we judge and evaluate other individuals in various contexts is associated with how we “ acquire, process, and categorize information ”.

The theory of the rule excluding hearsay is that assertions made by human beings are often unreliable ; such statements are often insincere, subject to flaws in memory and perception, or infected with errors in narration at the time they are given.

The goal of reliability theory is to estimate errors in measurement and to suggest ways of improving tests so that errors are minimized.

To guard against the tyranny of a numerical majority, Calhoun developed his theory of `` concurrent majority '', which, he said, `` by giving to each portion of the community which may be unequally affected by the action of government, a negative on the others, prevents all partial or local legislation ''.

We may thus trace the notion of individual autonomy from its manifestation in religious practice and theological reflection through practical politics and political theory into literature and the arts.

Finally we may note that the idea appears in educational theory where its influence is at present widespread.

In his study Samuel Johnson, Joseph Wood Krutch takes this line when he says that what Aristotle really means by his theory of catharsis is that our evil passions may be so purged by the dramatic ritual that it is `` less likely that we shall indulge them through our own acts ''.

Thus while his theory or technique may not be oversubscribed, it is commonplace for bullish and bearish positions to become temporarily over-subscribed.

Other theories of origin are compatible with the formulaic theory: Beowulf may contain a design for terror, and The Iliad may have a vast hysteron-proteron pattern answering to a ceramic pattern produced during the Geometric Period in pottery.

But he rejects, perhaps a little too sweepingly, the theory that disloyal and pro-Communist influences may have contributed to the policy of appeasing Stalin which persisted until after the end of the war and reached its high point at the Yalta Conference in February, 1945.

Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons.

A proof requiring the axiom of choice may establish the existence of an object without explicitly defining the object in the language of set theory.

Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets, a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result, even if a canonical result is desired ( as is often the case in category theory ).

On the other hand, other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger, and an identical category-theoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation, à la class theory, mentioned above.

Military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory, Red Teaming, and wargaming.

Of course, the current state of technology at any given time can put limitations on what can be achieved experimentally and theoretically so it may take considerable time for theory to be refined.

* Mereological nihilism – philosophical theory that may avoid antinomies

Although Zermelo's fix allows a class to describe arbitrary ( possibly " large ") entities, these predicates of the meta-language may have no formal existence ( i. e., as a set ) within the theory.

One fringe theory, supported by paranormal investigator Jon-Erik Beckjord, theorizes that the lack of hard evidence supporting Bigfoot's existence may be due to the creature being an interdimensional being that slips in and out of dimensions.

In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm which uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet.

Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons.

In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part.

For some individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove, or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or a combination of well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, mean world syndrome.

Bruno Latour suggests that the widespread popularity of conspiracy theories in mass culture may be due, in part, to the pervasive presence of Marxist-inspired critical theory and similar ideas in academia since the 1970s.

What is the history of criticism but the history of men attempting to make sense of the manifold elements in art that will not allow themselves to be reduced to a single philosophy or a single aesthetic theory??

Accordingly, it is the aim of this essay to advance a new theory of imitation ( which I shall call mimesis in order to distinguish it from earlier theories of imitation ) and a new theory of invention ( which I shall call symbol for reasons to be stated hereafter ).

Analogously, anyone who argues that Einstein's theory of gravitation is simpler than Newton's, must say rather more to explain how it is that the latter is mastered by student-physicists, while the former can be managed ( with difficulty ) only by accomplished experts.

The Axioms required to make the theoretical machinery operate are set out tersely and powerfully, so that all permissible operations within the theory can be traced rigorously back to these axioms, rules, and primitive notions.

Sample areas in the new investigations were selected strictly by application of the principles of probability theory, so as to be representative of the total population of defined areas within calculable limits.

We should expect that general phonologic theory should be as adequate for tone as for consonants and vowels, but it has not been.

This can only be for one of two reasons: either the two are quite different and will require totally different theory ( and hence techniques ), or our existing theories are insufficiently general.

A state, the highest form of human organization in fact and theory, could be subjected to Law only by a manifestation of self-will, or consent.

In this connection, it might be noted that the theory of games was a mathematical discovery long before its uses in political science were exploited.

It appeared that the theory could be saved in one way only.

On the theory before us, such relief would be groundless, for in that suffering itself there was nothing bad at all, and hence in its nonoccurrence there would be nothing to be relieved about.

Once many significant phrases are found in theory or in recurrent practice to provide for prosodic necessity, they are not to be defended for their semantic properties in isolated contexts.

In the second-order theory, one of the normal stress differences can be calculated from the first-order stress relaxation function.

But then this theory confesses that it is completely at a loss as to how the image can possibly be received by the brain.

This theory makes it possible for any event throughout eternity to be continuously available at any moment to consciousness.

( P. 215 ) when corporate abuses were attacked, it was done on the theory that criminal penalties would be invoked rather than control.

Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious beliefs in human beings, proposing a theory of animism as the earliest stage, and noting that " religion " has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings ( as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc .).

The exact number and placement of Endosymbiotic theory | endosymbiotic events is currently unknown, so this diagram can be taken only as a general guide It represents the most parsimonious way of explaining the three types of endosymbiotic origins of plastids.