Other utilitarian-type views include the claims that the end of action is survival and growth, as in evolutionary ethics ( the 19th-century English philosopher Herbert Spencer ); the experience of power, as in despotism ( the 16th-century Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and the 19th-century German Friedrich Nietzsche ); satisfaction and adjustment, as in pragmatism ( 20th-century American philosophers Ralph Barton Perry and John Dewey ); and freedom, as in existentialism ( the 20th-century French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre ).

Moreover, Friedrich Schlegel's book, Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier ( On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians, Heidelberg, 1808 ), which had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, did not fail to stimulate Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the Hindus.

For a time during the 19th century pantheism was the theological viewpoint of many leading writers and philosophers, attracting figures such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in Britain ; Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in Germany ; Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau in the USA.

It was greatly influenced by the writings of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche in the 19th century and other early-to-mid 20th-century philosophers, including phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, structuralist Roland Barthes, and the language / logic philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein.

A virtual cult following developed among such German philosophers as Friedrich Schelling, Friedrich Schlegel and Friedrich Nietzsche, who claimed that, " Thucydides, the portrayer of man, that culture of the most impartial knowledge of the world finds its last glorious flower.

One of the first philosophers who supported this view was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

It is claimed the works of counter-enlightenment philosophers such as Heidegger, along with Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph de Maistre, influenced Iran's Shia Islamists, notably Ali Shariati, in constructing the ideological foundations of the Iranian Revolution and modern political Islam.

In addition, Western philosophers such as Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Arthur Schopenhauer, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche, developed a western view of the mind which foreshadowed Freud's theories.

His writing influenced many subsequent novelists such as Marcel Proust, Émile Zola, Charles Dickens, Edgar Allan Poe, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gustave Flaubert, Benito Pérez Galdós, Marie Corelli, Henry James, William Faulkner, Jack Kerouac, and Italo Calvino, and philosophers such as Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx.

Some of the main philosophers who have dealt with this issue are Marcus Aurelius, Omar Khayyám, Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, David Hume, Baron d ' Holbach ( Paul Heinrich Dietrich ), Pierre-Simon Laplace, Arthur Schopenhauer, William James, Friedrich Nietzsche, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Ralph Waldo Emerson and, more recently, John Searle, Ted Honderich, and Daniel Dennett.

Bach's interest in all types of art led to influence from poets, playwrights and philosophers such as Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Moses Mendelssohn and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

The German political philosophers Karl Marx ( 1818 – 1883 ) and Friedrich Engels ( 1820 – 1895 ) argued in Die Deutsche Ideologie ( 1846, German Ideology ) and elsewhere that people's ideologies, including their social and political beliefs and opinions, are rooted in their class interests, and more broadly in the social and economic circumstances in which they live:

Childe was a believer in the socio-economic theory of Marxism, which had originally been formulated by the 19th century German philosophers and sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

The role of Thersites as a social critic has been advanced by several philosophers and literary critics, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Edward Said and Kenneth Burke.

Musicians also cite writers such as William S. Burroughs, and philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche as influences.

The term frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Hilary Putnam to describe the dogmatic endorsement of scientific methodology and the reduction of all knowledge to only that which is measurable.

Neo-Kantianism refers broadly to the revival of the type of philosophy explained by Immanuel Kant and of the interpretations of Kant provied by post-Kantian philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart.

But at the same time the philosophers Immanuel Fichte and Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide and deep impression.

Eminent Poets, writers and historians such as Friedrich Schiller, August Wilhelm Schlegel and the philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Georg Wilhelm Hegel all were professors at Jena University.

Like other contemporary French and Italian philosophers, Vattimo does not want, or only partially wants, to rely on Heidegger for understanding Nietzsche.

Habermas, Lyotard and Rorty are also philosophers who are influenced by Heidegger ’ s interpretation of Nietzsche.

By the 19th century the philosophers Schopenhauer and Nietzsche could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson and was adapted by Francis Bowen into Christian Metempsychosis.

Hamann, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Foucault, Rorty, and many other philosophers have contributed to a debate about what reason means, or ought to mean.

Importantly, Nietzsche attacks the false spirits who are the host of self-describing " unbelievers " of modern times who claim to reject religious deception as scholars and philosophers and yet retain the traditional refusal to question the value of truth.

In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers such as Rousseau, Nietzsche, and Gide, an instrument of revolt against the family and society:

A long line of philosophers — which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin, Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze — have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the tragic form.

Nietzsche and later philosophers argued that the noumenon is of an utterly indeterminate nature and that any discussion that does not treat it as such cannot, in fact, be a discussion of the noumenon.

German philosophy, here taken to mean either ( 1 ) philosophy in the German language or ( 2 ) philosophy by Germans, has been extremely diverse, and central to both the analytic and continental traditions in philosophy for centuries, from Leibniz through Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger and Wittgenstein to contemporary philosophers.

The biography reveals Beckmann's contemplations on writers and philosophers such as Dostoyevsky, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and Richard Wagner.

Giddens ( 1990 ) rejects this characterisation of " modern critique ", pointing out that a critique of Enlightenment universals was central to philosophers of the modern period, most notably Nietzsche.

The Birth of Tragedy is a young man's work, and shows the influence of many of the philosophers Nietzsche had been studying.

He entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, where he read the writings of the philosophers Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer and Otto Weininger and studied the works of Arnold Böcklin and Max Klinger.

In The Consolations of Philosophy, de Botton attempts to demonstrate how the teachings of philosophers such as Epicurus, Montaigne, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Seneca, and Socrates can be applied to modern everyday woes such as unpopularity, feelings of inadequacy, financial worries, broken hearts, and the general problem of suffering.

And some continental philosophers ( such as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, the later Heidegger, or Derrida ) doubt whether any conception of philosophy can coherently achieve its stated goals.

From the early 20th century until the 1960s, continental philosophers were only intermittently discussed in British and American universities, despite an influx of continental philosophers, particularly German Jewish students of Nietzsche and Heidegger, to the United States on account of the persecution of the Jews and later World War II ; Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss, Theodor W. Adorno, and Walter Kaufmann are probably the most notable of this wave, arriving in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

* Euclid's axioms: In his dissertation to Trinity College, Cambridge, Bertrand Russell summarized the changing role of Euclid's geometry in the minds of philosophers up to that time.

During the late 1920s, ' 30s, and ' 40s, Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein's formalism was developed by a group of philosophers in Vienna and Berlin, who formed the Vienna Circle and Berlin Circle into a doctrine known as logical positivism ( or logical empiricism ).

Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus ; medieval Muslim polymaths such as Ibn Rushd ; Enlightenment thinkers such as Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine ; and more recent freethinkers, agnostics, and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell.

Trinity alumni include six British prime ministers ( all Tory or Whig / Liberal ), British King George VI, several heads of other nations, physicists Isaac Newton and Niels Bohr, philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell ( whom it expelled before reaccepting ), and Soviet spies Kim Philby, Guy Burgess, and Anthony Blunt.

Bertrand Russell commented, expressing the sentiments of many mid-20th-century analytic philosophers, that:

Through the Apostles they also encountered the analytic philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell who were revolutionizing British philosophy at the turn of the 19th to 20th century.

While he was mainly ignored by the intellectual world when he published his writings, Giuseppe Peano ( 1858 – 1932 ) and Bertrand Russell ( 1872 – 1970 ) introduced his work to later generations of logicians and philosophers.

This method of inquiry is largely indebted to the work of philosophers such as Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, G. E.

Some philosophers, notably Bertrand Russell, hold the viewpoint that solipsism is entirely empty and without content.

While on sabbatical from the University of Chicago in 1934, Morris traveled abroad, visiting Europe and meeting working philosophers such as Bertrand Russell and members of the Vienna Circle like Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, and Moritz Schlick.

Hegel was hugely influential throughout the nineteenth century ; by its end, according to Bertrand Russell, " the leading academic philosophers, both in America and Britain, were largely Hegelian ".

Mathematicians and philosophers, such as Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Baruch Spinoza, have attempted to create their own foundational " Elements " for their respective disciplines, by adopting the axiomatized deductive structures that Euclid's work introduced.

The doctrines of British idealism so provoked the young Cambridge philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell that they began a new philosophical tradition, analytic philosophy.

This has been propounded by philosophers such as Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, Ralph Barton Perry, and Henry Babcock Veatch.

Indirect realism has been popular in the history of philosophy and has been developed by many philosophers including Bertrand Russell, Baruch Spinoza, René Descartes, and John Locke, the 17th century philosopher who most prominently advocated this theory.

This modern Platonism ( sometimes rendered " platonism ," with a lower-case p, to distinguish it from the ancient schools ) has been endorsed in one way or another at one time or another by numerous philosophers ( most of whom taking a particular interest in the philosophy and foundations of logic and mathematics ), including Bernard Bolzano, Gottlob Frege, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Alonzo Church, Kurt Gödel, W. V.

Many plot points in his stories accurately paraphrase and epitomize the thought of major philosophers, including George Berkeley, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Bertrand Russell ; he also attributes various opinions to figures including George Dalgarno.