F greater than or equal to the observed value.

This close approximation to the modern value of − 273. 15 ° C for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that − 270 ° C might be regarded as absolute cold.

In astronomy, to derive absolute magnitude from the observed apparent magnitude of a celestial object its value is corrected from distance to its observer.

In 1911, just three years after helium was first liquified, Onnes working at University of Leiden discovered superconductivity in mercury, when he observed the electrical resistivity in mercury to vanish when the temperature was lowered below a certain value.

Once the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view.

It was not until 1997, however, that a direct experiment, by S. Lamoreaux, described above, quantitatively measured the force ( to within 15 % of the value predicted by the theory ), although previous work van Blockland and Overbeek ( 1978 ) had observed the force qualitatively, and indirect validation of the predicted Casimir energy had been made by measuring the thickness of liquid Helium films by Sabisky and Anderson in 1972.

This leads to the Great Filter, which notes that since there are no observed extraterrestrial civilizations, despite the vast number of stars, then some step in the process must be acting as a filter to reduce the final value.

The estimate for a particular observed dataset ( i. e. for X = x ) is then, which is a fixed value.

Thus, measurement of the tension in the string identifies the inertial frame: it is the one where the tension in the string provides exactly the centripetal force demanded by the motion as it is observed in that frame, and not a different value.

The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command.

where is the predicted signal value, the previous observed values, and the predictor coefficients.

The theoretical tidal contribution to ΔT is about + 42 s / cy < sup > 2 </ sup > the smaller observed value is thought to be mostly due to changes in the shape of the Earth.

This maximal radiation density corresponds to about eV / m < sup > 3 </ sup > =, which is nearly eleven orders of magnitude greater than the observed value of.

Nonresponse bias occurs when the observed value deviates from the population parameter due to differences between respondents and nonrespondents.

Coverage bias occurs when the observed value deviates from the population parameter due to differences between covered and non-covered units.

Similarly, two random variables are independent if the conditional probability distribution of either given the observed value of the other is the same as if the other's value had not been observed.

During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role.

Statistical hypothesis tests answer the question Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability of observing a value for the test statistic that is at least as extreme as the value that was actually observed ?.

Specifically, if the vacuum energy is negative and its absolute value is substantially larger than it appears to be in the observed universe ( say, a factor of 10 larger ), holding all other variables ( e. g. matter density ) constant, that would mean that the universe is closed ; furthermore, its lifetime would be shorter than the age of our universe, possibly too short for the intelligent life to form.

According to F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, " the widely observed unity of form and point of view ... and general resemblance in linguistic detail throughout the sequence are broadly suggestive of the work of a single author ," though other scholars see Lamentations as the work of multiple authors.

In neuroscience, an F wave is the second of two voltage changes observed after electrical stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the distal region of a nerve.

Rømer observed immersions in C from the symmetric positions F and G, to avoid confusing eclipses ( Io shadowed by Jupiter from C to D ) and occultations ( Io hidden behind Jupiter at various angles ).

According to informal tradition, O stars are called " blue ", B " blue-white ", A stars " white ", F stars " yellow-white ", G stars " yellow ", K stars " orange ", and M stars " red ", even though the actual star colors perceived by an observer may deviate from these colors depending on visual conditions and individual stars observed.

The highest observed maximum temperature of 50. 5 ° C ( 122. 9 ° F ) was recorded at Mardie Station on 19 February 1998.

In 1997, his biographer R. F. Foster observed that Napoleon's dictum that to understand the man you have to know what was happening in the world when he was twenty " is manifestly true of W. B. Y.

The intensities of the reflections observed in X-ray diffraction give us the magnitudes | F ( q )| but not the phases φ ( q ).

On hearing of South Carolina's secession from the United States, Sherman observed to a close friend, Professor David F. Boyd of Virginia, an enthusiastic secessionist, almost perfectly describing the four years of war to come:

The earliest published report on this candiru attacking human hosts comes from German biologist C. F. P. von Martius in 1829, who never actually observed it, but rather was told about it by the native people of the area, including that men would tie a ligature around their penis while going into the river to prevent this from happening.

B. F. Skinner, like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.

As Bernard F. Dick observed, the Warners, " as sons of Polish Jews who fled their homeland because of anti-Semitic pogroms ... had a personal interest in exposing Nazism.

All four seasons can be distinctly observed, with snow falling most heavily in December and January and temperatures rising to their average summer levels of about 70 ° F ( 20 ° C ) in July and August.

Some sources add level F +", meaning a tornado with winds below 39 mph ; on rare occasions tornadoes this weak are observed covering a wide range of path widths and lengths.

In the inter-war years, United States Marine Corps Captain Evans F. Carlson went to China in 1937 and observed the Communist Chinese National Revolutionary Army in action against the Japanese army.

first observed the significance of a system of coefficients E, F, and G, that transformed in this way on passing from one system of coordinates to another.

Significant shear is observed when the temperature difference across the front is 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) or more, and the front moves at 30 knots or faster.

He is first observed at a party by F. Scott Fitzgerald, who notes that Zelig related to the affluent guests in a thick, refined accent and shared their republican sympathies, but while in the kitchen with the servants adopted a ruder tone and seemed to be more of a democrat.

To reduce the error in approximation, Frank Yates, an English statistician, suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for Pearson's chi-squared test by subtracting 0. 5 from the difference between each observed value and its expected value in a 2 × 2 contingency table .< ref name = Yates > Yates, F ( 1934 ).

: F: No entity or UFOs are observed, but the subject experiences some kind of " intelligent communication "

The attack did not materialise until 17: 00, when massed German infantry were observed forming up in front of F Troop.

Matthias F. Cowley, editor of his published journals, observed that Woodruff was ... perhaps, the best chronicler of events in all the history of the Church.

According to ethnologist F. Fawcett, writing in 1901, he had observed the removal of body hair, including pubic hair about the vulva, as a custom of women from the Hindu Nair caste.