Nonetheless, he did not hold a particularly unfavorable view of the sufi mystic and theoretician Muhyī ' l-Dīn ibn Arabī, who is often presented as the originator and most complete propounder of this philosophy.

Many attempted to find a proof by contradiction, including Persian mathematicians Ibn al-Haytham ( Alhazen, 11th century ), Omar Khayyám ( 12th century ) and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī ( 13th century ), and the Italian mathematician Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri ( 18th century ).

There have been many commentaries on Ibn ' Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam: the first, al-Fukūk, was written by his stepson and heir, Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qunawī, who had studied the book with Ibn ' Arabī ; the second by Qunawī's student, Mu ' ayyad al-Dīn al-Jandī, which was the first line-by-line commentary ; the third by Jandī's student, Dawūd al-Qaysarī, which became very influential in the Persian-speaking world.

The Philosophy of Hermeneutics: A Study of Ibn al -‘ Arabī's Hermeneutics of the Qur ’ ān ( Falsafat al-Ta ’ wīl: Dirâsah fi Ta ’ wīl al-Qur ’ ān ‘ inda Muḥyī al-Dīn ibn al -‘ Arabī ), Beirut and Casablanca 1983, 4th edition, 1998.

Shams al-Dīn Abū Al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad Ibn Muḥammad Ibn Khallikān () ( September 22, 1211 – October 30, 1282 ) was a 13th Century Shafi ' i Islamic scholar of Kurdish origin.

Muhadhdhib al-Dīn Abūʼl-Hasan ʻAlī ibn Ahmad Ibn Hubal () known as Ibn Hubal () ( c. 1122-1213 ) was an Arab physician and scientist born in Baghdad.

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi ( 1236 – 1311 ) and his student Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī ( 1260 – 1320 ) continued the work of Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to give the correct explanations for the rainbow phenomenon.

At the Maragha observatory, Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī ( d. 1277 ), in his Hikmat al -' Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, but later abandoned the model.

# Naẓm al Barāhīn fi Uṣūl al-Dīn, a work on scholastic theology.

Rashīd al-Dīn Fadhl-allāh Hamadānī ( 1247 – 1318 ), was a Persian physician of Jewish origin, polymathic writer and historian, who wrote an enormous Islamic history, the Jami al-Tawarikh, in the Persian language, often considered a landmark in intercultural historiography and a key document on the Ilkhanids ( 13th and 14th century ).

The Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī ( 1135 – 1213 ), was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus ; his Treatise on Equations developed concepts related to differential calculus, such as the derivative function and the maxima and minima of curves, in order to solve cubic equations which may not have positive solutions.

A principle of the conservation of matter was also stated by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī ( 1201 – 1274 ) during the 13th century.

The fact that Pahlavi script which was used by the Persian bureaucracy alongside Old Persian, passed into use in Khwarezmia where it served as the first local alphabet about the AD 2nd century, as well as evidence that Khwarezm-Shahs such as ʿAlā al-Dīn Tekish ( 1172 – 1200 ) issued all their orders ( both administrative and public ) in Persian language ', corroborates Biruni's claims.

In the 12th century, the Khwarezmid Empire was founded and, in the early 13th century, ruled over all of Persia under the Shah ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Muhammad II ( 1200 – 1220 ).

Nur ad-Dīn Abd ar-Rahmān Jāmī () also known as DJāmī, Mawlanā Nūr al-Dīn ' Abd al-Rahmān or Abd-Al-Rahmān Nur-Al-Din Muhammad Dashti who is commonly known as Jami ( August 18, 1414 – November 17, 1492 ), is known for his achievements as a scholar, mystic, writer, composer of numerous lyrics and idylls, historian, and the greatest Persian and Sufi poets of the 15th century.

Rashīd al-Dīn Tabīb () also Rashīd al-Dīn Fadhl-allāh Hamadānī ( 1247 – 1318 ) (), was a Persian physician of Jewish origin, polymathic writer and historian, who wrote an enormous Islamic history, the Jami al-Tawarikh, in the Persian language, often considered a landmark in intercultural historiography and a key document on the Ilkhanids ( 13th and 14th century ).

Al-Malik al-Ashraf Salāh al-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn (); ( b. c. 1262, Cairo – d. 14 December 1293, Kom Turuga ) was the eighth Mamluk sultan of Egypt from 1290 until his assassination in December, 1293.

Sultan al-Malik al-Sālih Najm al-Dīn Ayyūb ( 1239 – 1249 ) took the initiative and summoned that council.

* Bāb al-Baḩr ( the Gate of the Shore ), built in 1174 by Bahā ’ al-Dīn Qaraqūsh, near northwest corner in the northern wall ; destroyed in city modernizations by Muḩammad ‘ Alī in early 19th century.

* Bāb al-Wazīr ( the Minister's Gate ), opened in 1341 by the wazīr ( vizier — minister of state ) Najm al-Dīn Muḩammad ; still remains.

* Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī ( died 1276 ), Persian Islamic philosopher and logician of the Shafi ` i school

It has produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar Khayyám, Al-Khwarizmi, Abu Ma ' shar al-Balkhi ( known as Albumasar or Albuxar in the west ), Alfraganus, Abu Wafa, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī, and many others who are widely well known for their significant contributions in various domains such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, geography, and geology.

The Ruqaʿāt or the Ruqaʿāt-i-Abu ' l Fazl is a collection of private letters from Abū al-Fażl to Murad, Daniyal, Akbar, Mariam Makani, Salim ( Jahangir ), Akbar's queens and daughters, his father, mother and brothers and several other notable contemporaries compiled by his nephew Nūr al-Dīn Muḥammad.

* Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī ( born in Qazvin ) ( d. 1277 ), described a heliocentric model

Early Chishti shaykhs adopted concepts and doctrines outlined in two influential Sufi texts: the ʿAwārif al-Maʿārif of Shaykh Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī and the Kashf al-Maḥdjūb of Hudjwīrī.

‘ Iraqi is also considered to have reached an exalted station of spiritual realization within the Sufi tradition .< ref > Massé, H. " ʿIrāḳī, Fakhr al-Dīn Ibrāhīm ʿIrāḳī Hamadānī.

Dāya followed the Sufi order, Kubrawiyya, established by one of his greatest influences, Najm al-Dīn Kubrā.

He finally settled in Kārazm and soon become a morīd to Najm al-Dīn Kubrā, a mystical Sufi and founder of the Kubrawiyya Order.

Dāya traveled to Kārazm and soon became a morīd ( pupil, one who follows the shaykh master and learns from him, undergoing spiritual training ) of Najm al-Dīn Kubrā.

When his master, Najm al-Dīn Kubrā, was murdered in 618 / 1221, Dāya fled to Hamadan, then to Ardabil, and then to Anatolia where he finally settled with a fellow contemporary master Rumi.

* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina ( Special number ) 1958-59, Ed.

Meanwhile, around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, ' Abul Fada ' il Ibn al -' Assal, wrote the Fetha Negest in Arabic.

One of the Arabic translations, ‘ Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amraz ’, which is extant in the Library of Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works.

Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen ( 2008 ), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India ; ISBN 978-81-906070-1-8

Kitab al Anasir by Galen ( 2008 ), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India ; ISBN 978-81-906070-2-5

Kitab al Mizaj of Galen ( 2008 ), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India ; ISBN 978-81-906070-3-2

* Abu ' l Hasan Muhammad Ibn Yusuf al -' Amiri

According to Stephen Suleyman Schwartz, in his book " The Two Faces of Islam ", “ some say that during this vagabondage Ibn Abdul Wahhab came into contact with certain Englishmen who encouraged him to personal ambition as well as to a critical attitude about Islam .” Specifically, Mir ’ at al Harramin, a Turkish work by Ayyub Sabri Pasha, written in 1888, states that in Basra, Abdul Wahhab had come into contact with a British spy by the name of Hempher, who “ inspired in him the tricks and lies that he had learned from the British Ministry of the Commonwealth .”

The al Thanis were merchant princes, reliant on trade and especially the pearl trade, and depended on others to do their fighting for them, primarily the Bini Hajar i. e. Al Hajiri / Hajeri who owed their allegiance to Ibn Saud, Emir of the Nejd and Al Hasa.

He is considered the " father " of all commentaries that followed on the Talmud ( i. e., the Baalei Tosafot ) and the Tanakh ( i. e., Ramban, Ibn Ezra, Ohr HaChaim, et al.

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya also mentions the merits of vinegar in his book, Al Tibb al Nabawi ( The Prophetic Medicine ).

On 24 April 1950 the Jordan House of Deputies and House of Notables formally annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem, declaring " complete unity between the two sides of the Jordan and their union in one state ... at whose head reigns King Abdullah Ibn al Hussain ".

The first reliable reference to cauliflower is found in the writings of the Arab Muslim scientists Ibn al -' Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, in the 12th and 13th centuries.

" Muqammiṣ, David Ibn Marwān al -.

To illustrate the reach of the Maimonidean Controversy, al-Dastur, the chief opponent of Maimonides in the East, was excommunicated by Daud Ibn Hodaya al Daudi ( Exilarch of Mosul ).

Spinach became a popular vegetable in the Arab Mediterranean and arrived in Spain by the latter part of the 12th century, where the great Arab agronomist Ibn al -' Awwam called it the " captain of leafy greens ".

He quoted four levels of strength for praise from Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibn al-Salah, adding that al-Dhahabi and Abd al-Rahim ibn al-Husain al -' Iraqi added an additional level and Ibn Ḥajr one above that.

# Trustworthy ( ṣadūq ) and worthy of trust ( maḥallahu al-ṣidq ) are both examples of the next category to Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibn al-Salah while al -' Iraqi and al-Dhahabi consider the latter term to be from the next level.

Ibn Saud's mother was a Sudairi, Sarah al Sudairi ( died 1910 ).

ro: Ibn Saud al Arabiei Saudite