In 1967, Zuse also suggested that the universe itself is running on a cellular automaton or similar computational structure ( digital physics ); in 1969, he published the book Rechnender Raum ( translated into English as Calculating Space ).

Berkeley Lab has six main science thrusts: soft x-ray science for discovery, climate change and environmental sciences, matter and force in the universe, energy efficiency and sustainable energy, computational science and networking, and biological science for energy research.

The basic goal of this field is to understand and characterize the computational universe using experimental methods.

However, in general Wolfram's idea is that novel ideas and mechanisms can be discovered in the computational universe — where they can be witnessed in their clearest forms — and then other fields can pick and choose among these discoveries for those they find relevant.

Wolfram believes that the computational realities of the universe make science hard for fundamental reasons.

Another common theme is taking facts about the computational universe as a whole and using them to reason about fields in a holistic way.

For instance, Wolfram discusses how facts about the computational universe inform evolutionary theory, SETI, free will, computational complexity theory, and philosophical fields like ontology, epistemology, and even postmodernism.

Wolfram suggests that the theory of computational irreducibility may provide a resolution to the existence of free will in a nominally deterministic universe.

In the book Omega point ( 1994 ), the author suggests that the universe eventually would be colonized by such machine intelligence, which ultimately would try to turn all matter in the universe into energy and computational power.

It was proposed as a measure for the sentience of all beings living and computer from a single neuron up to a hypothetical being at the theoretical computational limit of the entire universe.

This is trillions of times more computation than is required for displaying all 40-character passwords, but computing all 50 character passwords would outstrip the estimated computational potential of the entire universe.

There has recently been proposed a limit on the computational power of the universe, i. e. the ability of Laplace's Demon to process an infinite amount of information.

Related ideas include Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker's binary theory of ur-alternatives, pancomputationalism, computational universe theory, John Archibald Wheeler's " It from bit ", and Max Tegmark's ultimate ensemble.

Pancomputationalism ( also known as pan-computationalism, naturalist computationalism ) is a view that the universe is a huge computational machine, or rather a network of computational processes which, following fundamental physical laws, computes ( dynamically develops ) its own next state from the current one.

Although other Earth-like planets could exist, Earth must be the most evolutionarily advanced, because otherwise we would have seen evidence that another culture had experienced the Singularity and expanded to harness the full computational capacity of the physical universe.

Bremermann's Limit, named after Hans-Joachim Bremermann, is the maximum computational speed of a self-contained system in the material universe.

* An upper bound on the computational resources of the universe in its entire history.

Gurevich: "... Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine ... according to Savage, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine ".

In algorithmic information theory ( a subfield of computer science ), the Kolmogorov complexity of an object, such as a piece of text, is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object.

Analytic geometry is widely used in physics and engineering, and is the foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete, and computational geometry.

Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader computational complexity theory, which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem.

In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to solving the central artificial intelligence problem — making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI.

It is based on a model of computation that splits the computational burden between a computer and a human: one part is solved by computer and the other part solved by human.

When a program demands more computational resources, the CPU quickly ( there is some latency ) returns to an intermediate or maximum speed with appropriate voltage to meet the demand.

The computational conversion of the ion sequence data, as obtained from a position sensitive detector, to a three dimensional visualisation of atomic types, is termed " reconstruction ".

In one application, it is actually a benefit: the password-hashing method used in OpenBSD uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule ; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against dictionary attacks.

In computational complexity theory, BPP, which stands for bounded-error probabilistic polynomial time is the class of decision problems solvable by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1 / 3 for all instances.

In computational complexity theory, BQP ( bounded error quantum polynomial time ) is the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1 / 3 for all instances.

The actual process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational biology.

The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related.

* Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible.

Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly.

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.

Nowadays research within the scope of computational linguistics is done at computational linguistics departments, computational linguistics laboratories, computer science departments, and linguistics departments .< ref >

The fundamental concept of cognitive science is " that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.

Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems.

In psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and computational linguistics, researchers have proposed various models of how the lexicon is organized and how words are retrieved.

Several computational models of vocabulary acquisition have been proposed so far.

Hoffmann has investigated both organic and inorganic substances, developing computational tools and methods such as the extended Hückel method, which he proposed in 1963.

Numerous methods have also been proposed in the field of computational geometry.

The term reproducible research was first proposed by Jon Claerbout at Stanford University and refers to the idea that the ultimate product of research is the paper along with the full computational environment used to produce the results in the paper such as the code, data, etc.

After outlining the various aspects of the contact, Staal posits the theory that the idea of formal rules in language, first proposed by de Saussure in 1894, and finally developed by Chomsky in 1957, based on which formal rules were also introduced in computational languages, may indeed lie in the European exposure to the formal rules of Paninian grammar.

Because there are fast algorithms for the DHT analogous to the fast Fourier transform ( FFT ), the DHT was originally proposed by R. N. Bracewell in 1983 as a more efficient computational tool in the common case where the data are purely real.

In the field of bioinformatics and computational biology, many statistical methods have been proposed and used to analyze codon usage bias.

Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions.

* Probably approximately correct learning, a computational learning theory framework for mathematical analysis of machine learning, proposed by Leslie Valiant in his paper A theory of the learnable

Combined with isotopic labelling evidence and computational studies, the proposed reaction mechanism for proline-catalyzed aldol reactions is as follows:

Such computational feature-comparison models include the ones proposed by Meyer ( 1970 ), Rips ( 1975 ), Smith, et al.

Autonomy-oriented computation is a paradigm proposed by Jiming Liu in 2001 that uses artificial systems imitating social animals ' collective behaviours to solve difficult computational problems.

A matrioshka brain is a hypothetical megastructure proposed by Robert Bradbury, based on the Dyson sphere, of immense computational capacity.

Maximum likelihood phylogenetic inference was proposed in the mid-Twentieth Century, but it has only been a popular method for phylogenetic inference since the 1990s, when computational power caught up with tremendous demands of ML analysis.

While focused on Semitic languages as the only branch of the broader Afroasiatic languages that has its distribution outside Africa, a recent study by Kitchen et al proposed through the use of Bayesian computational phylogenetic techniques that " contemporary Ethiosemitic languages of Africa reflect a single introduction of early Ethiosemitic from southern Arabia approximately 2800 years ago ", and that this single introduction of Ethiosemitic underwent " Rapid Diversification " within Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Kane Yee's seminal 1966 paper proposed spatially staggering the vector components of the E-field and H-field about rectangular unit cells of a Cartesian computational grid so that each E-field vector component is located midway between a pair of H-field vector components, and conversely.