In the eastern parts of the Middle East, it was generally applied to the Persians, while in al-Andalus it referred to speakers of Romance languages-becoming " Aljamiado " in Spanish in reference to Arabic-script writing of those languages-and in West Africa, Ajami similarly refers to Ajami script, or the writing of local languages such as Hausa and Fulani in the Arabic alphabet.

Aljamiado Arabic script of rex Pedro ben Xancho

According to Anwar G. Chejne, Aljamiado or Aljamía is " a corruption of the Arabic word ʿajamiyah ( in this case it means foreign language ) and, generally, the Arabic expression ʿajam and its derivative ʿajamiyah are applicable to peoples whose ancestry is not of Arabian origin ".

Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos.

Moriscos translated all prayers and the sayings of their prophet Mohammed into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, while keeping all Qur ' anic verses in the original Arabic.

Manuscript of a 14th century poem ( Poema de Yuçuf ) written in Aljamiado ( Spanish and Mozarabic language transliterated in Arabic alphabet ).

The Moriscos used a language called Aljamiado, which was a dialect of the Spanish language ( Mozarabic ) but was written using the Arabic alphabet.

Aljamiado played a very important role in preserving Islam and the Arabic language in the life of the Moriscos ; prayers and the sayings of Muhammad were translated into Aljamiado transcriptions of the Spanish language, while keeping all Qur ' anic verses in the original Arabic.

On Providence survives in two Arabic versions.

Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered ; while the medieval translations that had survived — in Arabic and Latin — both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts.

Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th Century Arabic harmony ( the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English ); and a 13th Century Persian harmony.

The Welsh word for honeymoon is mis mêl, which translates as " honey month ", and similarly the Ukrainian ( Медовий місяць ), Polish ( miesiąc miodowy ), Russian ( Медовый месяц ), Arabic ( شهر العسل shahr el ' assal ), Greek ( μήνας του μέλιτος ) and Hebrew ( ירח דבש yerach d ' vash ) versions.

For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the early 19th century extracts were published in German and English based on manuscripts discovered in the Middle East, containing abridged versions of Ibn Juzayy's Arabic text.

These additional manuscript sources of the Testimonium have furnished additional ways to evaluate Josephus ' mention of Jesus in the Antiquities, principally through a close textual comparison between the Arabic, Syriac and Greek versions to the Testimonium.

Andreas Köstenberger states that there is strong evidence that parts of the Testimonium are authentic, and that the comparison of the Greek versions with the Arabic version ( discovered by Shlomo Pines in the 1970s ) provides an indication of the original Josephan text.

Blomberg adds that after the removal of these three elements ( which are likely interpolations ) from the Greek versions the remaining passage fits well with the Arabic version and supports the authenticity of the reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.

It was ultimately derived, through a variety of intermediate versions ( Arabic and Georgian ), from the life story of the Buddha.

Dioscorides ' five-volume De Materia Medica, the precursor of pharmacopoeias, remained in use ( with some improvements in Arabic versions ) from the 1st to 16th centuries and described opium and the wide range of uses prevalent in the ancient world.

The ancient Hebrew versions identified the Hebrew " a girt one of the loins " of Proverbs 30: 31 as a rooster, " which most of the old translations and Rabbis understood to be a fighting cock ", with also the Arabic sarsar or sirsir being an onomatopoeticon or onomatopoeia for rooster ( alektor ) as the Hebrew zarzir of Proverbs 30: 31.

Other versions, which include other authors, are available in French, Japanese, and Arabic.

Some of the stories of The Nights, particularly " Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp ", " Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves " and " The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor ", while almost certainly genuine Middle Eastern folk tales, were not part of The Nights in Arabic versions, but were added into the collection by Antoine Galland and other European translators.

No physical evidence of the Hazār Afsān has survived so its exact relationship with the existing later Arabic versions remains a mystery.

Using versions of The Nights, tales from Al-Najjar, and other stories from unknown origins Habicht published his version in Arabic and German.

* 1984 – Muhsin Mahdi publishes an Arabic edition which he claims is faithful to the oldest Arabic versions surviving ( primarily based on the Syrian manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale in combination with other early manuscripts of the Syrian branch ).

Also, the very scant evidence of Enochian verb conjugation seems quite reminiscent of English, more so than with Semitic languages as Hebrew or Arabic, which Dee claimed were debased versions of the original Angelic language.

Modern Kazakh has historically been written using versions of the Latin, Cyrillic and Arabic scripts.

He is known both for his original works and for translating many important Greek and Arab scientific works of astrology, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics into Latin from Arabic versions, which were then introduced to Western Europe.

Consequently, Western Europe rediscovered Ptolemy from translations of Arabic versions.

* Arabic versions of Christian names ( e. g. saints ' names: Botros for Peter ).

This game has translated across multiple cultures from seemingly common routes and some international versions also use the name Simon such as the Spanish " Simón dice ", " Símon segir " in Icelandic, " Szymon mówi " in Polish, " 시몬 가라사대 " (" Simon says ") in Korean, In Arabia: for example, " الجنرال عمل كده " ( General commanded-Egypt version ) or " قال المعل ّ م " ( the teacher says-Lebanon version ) and " سلمان يقول " ( salmon says-Iraqi Version ) in Arabic, " Kommando Pimperle " ( or with similar rules " Alle Vögel fliegen hoch ") in German, " Jacques a dit " (" James said ") in French, " Jean dit " ( John says ) in Québec, " Commando " ( the Dutch noun for " command ") or " Jantje zegt " in Flemish parts of Belgium, in Dutch, " הרצל אמר " (" Herzl said ") in Hebrew, " Deir Ó Grádaigh " (" O ' Grady says ") in Irish,

Stories of the Christian saints Barlaam and Josaphat were " baptized " renditions of the life of Siddhartha Gautama, as translated from Indian sources into Persian to Arabic to Greek versions, the religious language being only cosmetically altered along the way.

Additional works by Alexander are preserved in Arabic translation, these include: On the Principles of the Universe, On Providence, and Against Galen on Motion.

There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s, including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum, an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle's advice to Alexander the Great.

According to Henri Cordier, the source of all the fables of the dog-headed barbarians, whether European, Arabic, or Chinese, can be found in the Alexander Romance.

The oldest documentable source for the text is the Kitab Sirr al-Asrar, a compendium of advice for rulers in Arabic which purports to be a letter from Aristotle to Alexander the Great.

Another theory, famously forwarded by Alexander von Humboldt is that it comes from the Arabic al-Tin or al-Tennyn, for " dragon ", a reference to the old Arab legends about sea dragons on the edge of the ocean ( frequently depicted in Arab maritime charts ), and that the island may have been known as Jezirat al Tennyn, or " Dragon's Isle ", in Andalusian Arab legend.

Alexander the Great may be refers to the conjecture that the story of Dhul-Qarnayn ( in Arabic ذو القرنين, literally " The Two-Horned One ", also transliterated as Zul-Qarnain or Zulqarnain ), mentioned in the Quran, may be reference to Alexander III of Macedon ( 356 – 323 BC ), popularly known as Alexander the Great.

The Syriac legend was the source of an Arabic variant called the Qisas Dhul-Qarnayn ( Tales of Dhul-Qarnayn ) and a Persian variant called the Iskandarnamah ( Book of Alexander ), as well as Armenian and Ethiopic translations.

There is some numismatic evidence, in the form of ancient coins, to identify the Arabic epithet " Dhul-Qarnayn " with Alexander the Great.

For these reasons, among others, the Qur ' an's Arabic epithet " Dhul-Qarnayn ," literally meaning " the two-horned one ," is interpreted as a reference to Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great features prominently in early Arabic literature.

There are many surviving versions of the Alexander romance in Arabic that were written after the conquest of Islam.

It is also thought that pre-Islamic Arabic versions of the Alexander romance may have existed.

The earliest surviving Arabic narrative of the Alexander romance was composed by Umara ibn Zayd ( 767-815 AD ).

In the Yemenite variation, Dhul-Qarnayn is identified with an ancient king of Yemen named Tubba ', rather than Alexander the Great, but the Arabic story still describes the story of Alexander's Wall against Gog and Magog and his quest for the Water of Life.

The Alexander romance also had an important influence on Arabic wisdom literature.

In Secretum Secretorum (" Secret of Secrets ", in Arabic Kitab sirr al-asrar ), an encyclopedic Arabic treatise on a wide range of topics such as statecraft, ethics, physiognomy, alchemy, astrology, magic and medicine, Alexander appears as a speaker and subject of wise sayings and as a correspondent with figures such as Aristotle.

In another example of Arabic wisdom literature relating to Alexander, Ibn al-Nadim (?- 997 AD ) refers to a work on divination titled The Drawing of Lots by Dhul-Qarnain and to a second work on divination by arrows titled The gift of Alexander, but only the titles of these works have survived.

A more direct Arabic translation of the Alexander romance, called Sirat Al-Iskandar, was discovered in Constantinople, at the Hagia Sophia, and is dated to the 13th century.

These retouched borrowings are highly significant in this text, because the Arabic Alexander figure is portrayed as a propagator of Islamic monotheism.

Another piece of Arabic Alexander literature is the Laments ( or Sayings ) of the Philosophers.