In his study Samuel Johnson, Joseph Wood Krutch takes this line when he says that what Aristotle really means by his theory of catharsis is that our evil passions may be so purged by the dramatic ritual that it is `` less likely that we shall indulge them through our own acts ''.

Aristotle " says that ' on the subject of reasoning ' he ' had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of '".

The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell,

For example, to cite Cynthia Freeland's catalogue: " Aristotle says that the courage of a man lies in commanding, a woman's lies in obeying ; that " matter yearns for form, as the female for the male and the ugly for the beautiful ;" that women have fewer teeth than men ; that a female is an incomplete male or " as it were, a deformity ": which contributes only matter and not form to the generation of offspring ; that in general " a woman is perhaps an inferior being "; that female characters in a tragedy will be inappropriate if they are too brave or too clever "( Freeland 1994: 145-46 )

They are not further identifiable from what Aristotle says but some pulmones appear in Pliny as a class of insensate sea animal ; specifically the halipleumon (" salt-water lung ").

In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that " rhetoric is the counterpart the antistrophe of dialectic.

For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to but different from the domain or scope of application of dialectic.

Aristotle also says rhetoric is concerned with judgment because the audience judges the rhetor's ethos.

In Nicomachean Ethics ( Book 1 Chapter 5 ) Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts.

Aristotle ( peri ouravou, i. 9, 15 ) says: " The period which includes the whole time of one's life is called the aeon of each one.

* Although Aristotle says that catharsis ( purgation of emotion ) should be the goal of tragedy, this is only an ideal.

A plot must have, Aristotle says, a beginning, a middle, and an end, and the events of the plot must causally relate to one another as being either necessary or probable.

Furthermore, Aristotle says that a soul is related to its body as form to matter.

Moreover, Aristotle says that a body that has lost its soul is no longer potentially alive.

When Aristotle says that the body is matter for a living thing, he may be using the word " body " to refer to the matter that makes up the fully organized body, rather than the fully organized body itself.

51 ), and Aristotle says that it was a matter of dispute ( Metaph.

In his Nicomachean Ethics, (§ 21 ; 1095a15 – 22 ) Aristotle says that everyone agrees that eudaimonia is the highest good for human beings, but that there is substantial disagreement on what sort of life counts as doing and living well ; i. e. eudaimon:

Aristotle says that the eudaimon life is one of “ virtuous activity in accordance with reason ”.

In his Nicomachean Ethics, ( 1095a15 – 22 ) Aristotle says that eudaimonia means ’ doing and living well ’.

He also says that they possessed a portrait of Christ, a painting they claimed had been made by Pilate during his lifetime, which they honoured along with images of Plato, Pythagoras and Aristotle " in the manner of the Gentiles ".

" Hence, the sentence Aristotle was Greek says only that that person was Greek.

Pliny says he was the grandson of Aristotle by his daughter Pythias, but this is not confirmed by any other ancient writer ; and according to the Suda, he was the son of Cretoxena, the sister of the physician Medius, and Cleombrotus.

Aristotle adds another qualification to that of being virtuous but not entirely good when he says, “ He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous .” He goes on to give examples such as Oedipus and Thyestes .”

Aristotle also tended to stratify all aspects of human nature and activity into levels of excellence and, like Plato, he put the pure and unimpassioned intellect on the top level.

Aristotle was considered to give a more important position to sense perception than Plato, and commentators in the middle ages summarized one of his positions as " nihil in intellectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu " ( Latin for " nothing in the intellect without first being in the senses ").

To complicate matters further, Aristotle distinguishes between two kinds of intellect or two parts of the intellect .< ref > On the Soul 15-25 </ i ></ ref > These two intellectual powers are traditionally called the " passive intellect " and the " active intellect " or " agent intellect ".

Thus, interpreters of Aristotle have faced the problem of explaining how the intellect fits into Aristotle's hylomorphic theory of the soul.

He argues against the theory of Aristotle that the soul of man is his thought and that only the soul of the philosopher will be united, after the death of the body, with the active intellect.

Aristotle also argues that the mind ( only the agent intellect ) is immaterial, able to exist without the body, and immortal.

He apprehended well the views of each of the two philosophers and Aristotle and brought them under one and the same nous and transmitted philosophy without conflicts to all of his disciples, and especially to the best of those acquainted with him, Plotinus, Origen, and their successors.

It is noteworthy that Socrates ( Plato, Phaedo, 98 B ) accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate between nous and psyche, while Aristotle ( Metaphysics, Book I ) objects that his nous is merely a deus ex machina to which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge.

In Greek, " first principles " are archai, " starting points ", and the faculty used to perceive them is sometimes referred to in Aristotle and Plato as nous which was close in meaning to awareness " or " consciousness.

* ( 1867 ) The Psychology of Aristotle ( Die Psychologie des Aristoteles: Insbesondere seine Lehre vom nous Poiētikos )

Together with Plato and Socrates ( Plato's teacher ), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy.

Two aspects of this attitude deserve to be mentioned: 1 ) he did not only study science from books, as other academics did in his day, but actually observed and experimented with nature ( the rumours starting by those who did not understand this are probably at the source of Albert's supposed connections with alchemy and witchcraft ), 2 ) he took from Aristotle the view that scientific method had to be appropriate to the objects of the scientific discipline at hand ( in discussions with Roger Bacon, who, like many 20th century academics, thought that all science should be based on mathematics ).

* John Philoponus: On Aristotle On the Intellect ( de Anima 3. 4-8 ), translated by W. Charlton.

* Karamanolis, G., ( 2006 ), Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?

There were the seeds ( spermata ) or miniatures of wheat and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture ; but these parts, of like nature with their wholes ( the homoiomereiai of Aristotle ), had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character.

Modern botany traces its roots back more than twenty three centuries, to the Father of Botany, Theophrastus ( c. 371 – 287 BC ), a student of Aristotle.

Western casuistry dates from Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ), yet the zenith of casuistry was from 1550 to 1650, when the Society of Jesus used case-based reasoning, particularly in administering the Sacrament of Penance ( or " confession ").

Aristotle, ( 384 – 322 BCE ), believed earth was the heaviest element, and his theory of natural place suggested that any earth – laden substances, would fall quickly, straight down, toward the center of the cosmos.

Thomas Aquinas ( c. 1225 – 1274 ), a theologian in Medieval Europe, adapted the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle and Avicenna to form one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument.

It may be traced to the ancient Ionian philosophers ( particularly Anaximenes ), from whom Aristotle, Hegel and Engels inherited the concept.

Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable ( physical / metabolism ), animal ( emotional / appetite ) and rational ( mental / conceptual ).

Aristotle previously explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Avicenna modified into the theory of petrifying fluids ( succus lapidificatus ), which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century.

Early medieval writers often had fuzzy and imprecise impressions of both Ptolemy and Aristotle and relied more on Pliny, but they felt ( with one exception ), little urge to assume flatness.

Aristotle ( 384-322 BC ), Plato ’ s greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs ( see Logic ) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century.

Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ), however, believed the Milky Way to be caused by " the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together " and that the " ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions.

Aristotle (, Aristotélēs ) ( 384 BCE – 322 BCE ), a student of Plato, promoted the concept that observation of physical phenomena could ultimately lead to the discovery of the natural laws governing them.

While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity ( for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others ), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages ( for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon ), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe.

Plato ( left ) and Aristotle ( right ), a detail of The School of Athens

Philia ( philía ), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept addressed and developed by Aristotle.

Plato ( left ) and Aristotle ( right ), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael.

Whereas the " higher " law Aristotle suggested one could appeal to was emphatically natural, in contradistinction to being the result of divine positive legislation, the Stoic natural law was indifferent to the divine or natural source of the law: the Stoics asserted the existence of a rational and purposeful order to the universe ( a divine or eternal law ), and the means by which a rational being lived in accordance with this order was the natural law, which spelled out action that accorded with virtue.

This classification is comparatively recent ( it was not used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for instance ), and dates from the French Revolution era, when those members of the National Assembly who supported the republic, the common people and a secular society sat on the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the Church sat on the right.

Benjamin Jowett ), a view which is echoed by Aristotle in his Metaphysics 982b12: " It was their wonder, astonishment, that first led men to philosophize and still leads them.

Plato ( left ) and Aristotle ( right ), from a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael.