The arrangement of the Psalms in the Rule of St. Benedict had a profound impact upon the breviaries used by secular and monastic clergy alike, up until 1911 when Pope St. Pius X introduced his reform of the Roman Breviary.

Chapter X regulates penances ( often corporal ) for offences, and it is here that the Rule of St. Columbanus differs so widely from that of St. Benedict.

In contrast, the Holy See has not questioned the validity of the consecrations that the late Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre performed in 1988 for the service of the relatively numerous followers of the Traditionalist Catholic Society of St. Pius X that he had founded, and of the bishops who, under pressure from the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, " have been ordained without the Pontifical mandate and who have not asked for, or have not yet obtained, the necessary legitimation ", and who consequently, Pope Benedict XVI has declared, " are to be considered illegitimate, but validly ordained ".

In 2009 he expressed public concern at Pope Benedict XVI's lifting of excommunication of the bishops of the Society of Saint Pius X. Genscher wrote in the Mitteldeutsche Zeitung: " Poles can be proud of Pope John Paul II.

Pacelli became the under-secretary in 1911, adjunct-secretary in 1912 ( a position he received under Pope Pius X and retained under Pope Benedict XV ), and secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in February 1914.

( Note on numbering: Pope Benedict X is now considered an antipope.

At the time of the election of Benedict XI, however, this status was not recognized, and the man the Roman Catholic Church officially considers the tenth true Pope Benedict took the official number XI, rather than X.

A note on the numbering: Pope Benedict X is now considered an antipope.

Stephen IX died at Florence on 29 March 1058 and is considered by the current-day Roman Catholic Church to have been succeeded by Pope Nicholas II, though others consider his successor to be Pope Benedict X, officially regarded as an antipope.

Pope Pius X also undertook a revision of the Roman Missal, which was published and declared typical by his successor Pope Benedict XV on 25 July 1920.

* Antipope Benedict X is crowned pope, but later deposed.

Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand was successful ; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X, who, thanks also to Agnes's support, was replaced by the Bishop of Florence, Nicholas II.

* January 24 – Pope Nicholas II succeeds Pope Stephen IX as the 155th Pope, installed in opposition to Antipope Benedict X.

During his time as a student, he witnessed vehement demonstrations against Popes St. Pius X and Benedict XV in Rome during an anniversary celebration by the Freemasons.

Pope / Antipope Benedict X ( d. 1073 / 1080 ), was born John Mincius, and later became Cardinal Bishop of Velletri.

Nicholas II proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod at Sutri, where he pronounced Benedict X deposed and excommunicated.

The supporters of Nicholas II then gained control of Rome, and forced Benedict X to flee to the castle of Gerard of Galeria.

Having arrived in Rome, Nicholas II then proceeded to wage war against Benedict X and his supporters, with Norman assistance.

An initial battle was fought in Campagna in early 1059, which was not wholly successful for Nicholas II ; but later that same year, his forces conquered Praeneste, Tusculum and Numentanum, and then attacked Galeria, forcing Benedict X to surrender and renounce the Papacy.

The most important consequence of the affair of Benedict X was the adoption of new laws on papal elections, at a synod hosted by Nicholas II in the Lateran Palace at Easter 1059.

Benedict X was elected in 1058, his election having been arranged by the Count of Tusculum.

Nicholas II proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod at Sutri, where he pronounced Benedict X deposed and excommunicated.

The supporters of Nicholas II then gained control of Rome and forced Benedict X to flee to the castle of Gerard of Galeria.

This was most obvious in the ' Culture and Personality ' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict.

Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by Ralph Linton, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH.

By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the Cluniac reforms, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community.

When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.

He was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, deserted Pope Gregory XII, and, with those following Antipope Benedict XIII from Avignon, convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became the leader.

The aim of the council was to end the schism ; to this end they deposed Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected the new pope Alexander V in 1409.

John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France, England, Bohemia, Prussia, Portugal, parts of the Holy Roman Empire, and numerous Northern Italian city states, including Florence and Venice ; however, the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII was regarded as pope by the Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Scotland and Gregory XII was still favored by Ladislaus of Naples, Carlo I Malatesta, the princes of Bavaria, Louis III, Elector Palatine, and parts of Germany and Poland.

The last remaining claimant in Avignon, Benedict XIII, refused to resign and was excommunicated.

This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough's graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191, where he states that many of the islands were uninhabited from fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronesos, were their strongholds.

These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as Abbot of Monte Cassino ; Valentinianus ; Simplicius ; and Honoratus, who was abbot of Subiaco when St Gregory wrote his Dialogues.

Benedict was the son of a Roman noble of Nursia, the modern Norcia, in Umbria.

On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus of Subiaco, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave.

Bede's first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names " Biscop " and " Beda " both appear in a king list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800, further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family.

At the age of seven, he was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith.

Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the Continent, and in Bede's day the monastery was a renowned centre of learning.

The monastery at Subiaco established in Italy by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529 was the first of a dozen monasteries founded by him.

The Rule of St. Benedict was promoted by various rulers of France, especially the House of Capet.

Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV ( pope 1740 – 1758 ), a special congregation collected much material for an official revision, but nothing was published.

This view was reinforced by Pope Benedict XIV, who ordered a ban on Chinese rituals.

The pope, as Bishop of Rome, may open a process and has the authority to waive the five year waiting period, as was done for Mother Teresa by Pope John Paul II, and for Lúcia Santos and for John Paul II himself by Pope Benedict XVI.

However, he was made a cardinal at the 24 March 2006 consistory anyway, as was announced by Pope Benedict XVI on 22 February 2006.