By the mid-13th century, Mapungubwe was abandoned.

By the mid-13th century, while the island was nominally ruled by the king of England, from c. 1260 the effective area of control began to recede.

By the 6th century, the lateen sails had largely replaced the square sail throughout the Mediterranean, the latter almost disappearing from Mediterranean iconography until the mid-13th century.

By the mid-13th century, the Hungarian army is thought to have abandoned the tactics of the steppe nomads that made them such effective fighters against the German states, France, Italy, Spain, Poland, the Balkans and the Low Countries in the ninth and tenth centuries.

By the end of the nineteenth century, in 1893, when the Big Three, Columbia, and Penn were populous centers of learning, Dartmouth graduated only sixty-nine.

By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established.

By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite " of all the folk ," born from Zeus and Dione.

By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors ( Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians ) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity ( Visigoths, Lombards ).

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as " the commentator " ().

By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.

By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money ; on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.

By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic and not Akkadian itself.

By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well.

By the end of the twentieth century " Negro " had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.

By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years.

By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.

By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.

By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum ( Latin ), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer.

By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zurich.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned to explicitly spiritual areas of research.

By the next year, they conquered all of Sicily, ending the Islamic Emirate of Sicily.

By the 19th century, these blockhouses had evolved into a major fortress for the Emirate of Bukhara.

By 1236 AD, the Reconquista was essentially completed and Europeans had retaken the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims, but the Emirate of Granada, a small Muslim vassal of the Christian Kingdom of Castile, remained in Spain until 1492 AD.

By the 10th century, there were three main classes of bireme warships of the general dromon type, as detailed in the inventories for the expeditions sent against the Emirate of Crete in 911 and 949: the ousiakon (), so named because it was manned by an ousia of 108 men ; the pamphylon ( πάμφυλον ), crewed with up to 120 – 160 men, its name either implying an origin in the region of Pamphylia as a transport ship or its crewing with " picked crews " ( from, " all tribes "); and the dromōn proper, crewed by two ousiai.

By August 1920 the Turkestan Bolsheviks advocated the liquidation of the Bukhara Emirate as a centre for counter-revolutionary forces.

By mid-1815 a large Spanish expeditionary force under Pablo Morillo had arrived in New Granada.

By 1250, nearly all of Iberia was back under Christian rule with the exception of the small Muslim kingdom of Granada.

By the time he arrived, the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat of invasion had receded, so he turned the trip into a sight-seeing tour, traveling through Valencia and ending up in Granada.

By early 1831, with order restored, Panama reincorporated itself to what was left of the republic-forming a territory now slightly larger than present day Panama and Colombia combined-which by then had adopted the name of Republic of New Granada.

By the time the civil conflict ended and the government of New Granada and the government of the Isthmus had negotiated the Isthmus's reincorporation to the union, Panama's First Republic had been free for 13 months.

By 1252 only the Kingdom of Granada remained as sovereign Muslim state in the Iberian peninsula.

By 2004, ITV was owned by five companies of which two, Carlton and Granada had become major players by owning between the two all the franchises in England, Wales, the Scottish borders and the Isle of Man.

By the treaty of Alcaraz, in 1243, Alfonso X of Castile made Murcia a protectorate, getting access to Mediterrannean sea while Murcia was protected against Granada and Aragon.

By the 1860s the suburb of Southsea had grown along Clarendon Road as far as Granada Road.

On November 11, 1811, Cartagena declared its independence. By mid-1815 a large Spanish expeditionary fleet under Pablo Morillo had arrived in New Granada and forces besieged Cartagena.

By 1816, the combined efforts of Spanish and colonial forces, marching south from Cartagena and north from royalist strongholds in Quito, Pasto, and Popayán, completed the reconquest of New Granada, taking Bogotá on May 6, 1816.

A former Granada journalist Jonathan Boyd Hunt investigated the " Cash-For-Questions " affair and concluded in his book, Trial By Conspiracy, that the case against Hamilton was untrue.

By the early 1960s Granada was established and its soap opera Coronation Street quickly became popular alongside inexpensive game shows Criss Cross Quiz and University Challenge.

By 2002, Granada had established an effective duopoly of ITV with Carlton Television, owning all the ITV companies in England and Wales.

By this time, all of the franchises in England and Wales were owned by either Carlton or Granada.

By 2001, Carlton and Granada owned all of the franchises in England and Wales, and in 2002 took the decision to unify the playout and branding of all of the companies to become ITV1, with regional references used only in accordance with regional programming.

By 1985, the Sierra had become the largest Ford model, following the demise of the Granada.

An adaptation of By the Pricking of My Thumbs appeared in 2006 as an episode of the Granada television series Marple.

By year's end Bolívar presented himself before the Congress and asked it to decree the union of Venezuela and New Granada in a new state, Colombia.

By 1816, the combined efforts of Spanish and colonial forces, marching south from Cartagena and north from royalist strongholds in Quito, Pasto, and Popayán, completed the reconquest of New Granada, taking Bogotá on May 6, 1816.

By the beginning of 1491, Granada was the only Muslim-governed city in Spain.

By 1819, Santander was given command of the republican army's vanguard by Bolívar during the campaign to liberate New Granada.

By then the Nasrid kings of Granada had given themselves heraldic arms in the Christian way, which are also seen on pottery.