During this era, Chinese scholars attempted to incorporate Western philosophical ideologies such as democracy, Marxism, socialism, liberalism, republicanism, and nationalism into Chinese philosophy.

Mandarin Chinese Guoyu (" Nation-Language "), was promoted as an standard tongue, and the establishment of communications facilities ( including radio ) were used to encourage a sense of Chinese nationalism in a way that was not possible when the nation lacked an effective central government.

Seeking to promote Chinese nationalism, Chiang's government actively ignored and suppressed local cultural expression, even forbidding the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or during class sessions.

As a result of those connections, Linebarger's godfather was Sun Yat-sen, considered the father of Chinese nationalism.

Among Chinese historians, convergence theory is in conflict with Chinese nationalism which includes a strong element of China as being unique.

The " third generation " of leadership under Jiang Zemin, Zhu Rongji, and associates largely continued Deng's progressive economic vision while overseeing the re-emergence of Chinese nationalism in the 1990s.

Eventually coming to adopt an orthodox Marxist-Leninist position by accepting not only Marx's ideas but also those of Lenin, he came to view Chinese nationalism as a powerful tool in the national liberation struggle against western and Japanese dominance, but unlike orthodox Marxist-Leninists also viewed nationalism as something intrinsically valuable in itself.

Lee became an iconic figure known throughout the world, particularly among the Chinese, as he portrayed Chinese nationalism in his films.

The modern Chinese intellectual tradition of the turn of the twentieth century is defined by two central concepts, iconoclasm and nationalism.

Some were goaded by Chinese nationalism, while others contained nascent Taiwanese self-determination.

The fourth group on the other hand were influenced by Chinese nationalism and fought for the return of Taiwan to Chinese rule.

David Ownby contends that Falun Gong also challenged the Communist Party's hegemony over Chinese nationalist discourse: " Gong's evocation of a different vision of Chinese tradition and its contemporary value is now so threatening to the state and party because it denies them the sole right to define the meaning of Chinese nationalism, and perhaps of Chineseness.

It seems they would be willing to accept some high level of international isolation, perhaps even economic damage, as a consequence, because the issue has long been ingrained into their concept of Chinese nationalism, and into the expectations of their populace.

* Chinese nationalism

He firmly believes in Chinese nationalism and, in Taiwan, is given much media exposure thanks to his popularity as a writer.

The promotion of Chinese nationalism within Taiwan and the fact that the ruling group on Taiwan were considered outsiders by some were the reasons cited for both the Taiwan independence movement and Taiwanization.

Critics argue that the new perspective creates a “ false ” identity rooted in ethnic nationalism as opposed to an “ authentic ” Chinese identity, which is primordial and inherent.

The ledger was full of most precise information: date of laying, length of incubation period, number of chick reaching the first week, second week, fifth week, weight of hen, size of rooster's wattles and so on, all scrawled out in a hand that looked more Chinese than English, the most jagged and sprawling Alex had ever seen.

Thus, while it remains possible that the Babylonians and/or the Pythagoreans may perhaps have had the magic square of three before the Chinese did, more definite evidence will have to turn up from the Middle East or the Classical World before China can lose her claim to the earliest known magic square by more than a thousand years.

The concept of the Middle Kingdom at peace, strong and united under a forceful ruler, which had been only a longed-for ideal in the time of the Warring States, was finally realized by the establishment of a Chinese Empire under the Ch'in dynasty ( 221-207 B.C. ).

Such an analysis speedily reveals why the middle number of the Lo Shu, 5, was so vitally significant for the Chinese ever since the earliest hints that they had a knowledge of this diagram.

In fact, the neat balance of these pairs, and their subtle equilibrium, would have had special meaning in the minds of the Old Chinese.

This whole tendency had an unfortunate effect on Chinese thinking.

The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as " working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached.

Russian archaeologist L. A. Evtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BC, and defected to them as a result.

According to ancient Chinese, Indian and Javanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports, part of their trade routes, since the first millennium.

The Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK.

The USSR had signed a Treaty of Friendship with the Kuomintang in 1945 and disavowed support for the Chinese Communists.

After a Chinese invasion to assist the North Koreans, fighting stabilized along the 38th parallel, which had separated the Koreas.

In 1991 there were 2, 000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test ( comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate ), while in 2005, the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117, 660 .< ref > " 汉语水平考试中心 ： 2005年外国考生总人数近12万 ",< sup > Gov. cn </ sup > Xinhua News Agency, January 16, 2006 .</ ref >

By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi.

Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants ; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.

By 1949, the CPC had established control over most of the country ( see Chinese Civil War ).

The idea of Filial piety influenced the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children.

Lu Xun also criticised Confucianism heavily for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late Qing Dynasty: his criticism are well portrayed in two of his works, A Madman's Diary and The True Story of Ah Q.

The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered China from India during the Late Han Dynasties.

By the time of the Tang Dynasty five-hundred years after Buddhisms arrival into China, it had transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism.

It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 21st century.

In this period also started the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.

During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization.

Martin had to invent the word quanli to translate the Western concept of " rights " in the process of translating Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law into classical Chinese.