The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of DNA sequence analysis, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse.

The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods.

Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y is otherwise found mainly among Nivkhs, and with lower frequency among Tungusic peoples, Koreans, Mongols ( including Kalmyks and Buryats ), Chinese, Japanese, Central Asians, South Siberian Turkic peoples ( e. g. Tuvans, Todjins, Soyots ), Koryaks, Alyutors, Itelmens, Taiwanese aborigines, Filipinos, Indonesians, and Malaysians.

It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus.

An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins ( and sometimes DNA or RNA ) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease.

# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis.

The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors.

In this microstructure of DNA is a pair of biopolymers, Polynucleotide s, forming the double helix found in DNA

Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa.

While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along more efficient, evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.

Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid ( DNA / RNA ) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions.

In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence.

In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair ( often abbreviated bp ).

The size of an individual gene or an organism's entire genome is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded.

A kilobase ( kb ) is a unit of measurement in molecular biology equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA.

DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content, but, contrary to popular belief, the hydrogen bonds do not stabilize the DNA significantly, and stabilization is mainly due to stacking interactions.

With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually.

Instead it generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments ( ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology ).

The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact.

It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes.

The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 100, 000 to over 3, 750, 000, 000 nucleotides in a long chain.

This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus.

This was done by synthesizing a very long DNA molecule containing an entire bacterium genome, and introducing this into another cell, analogous to the accomplishment of Eckard Wimmer's group, who synthesized and ligated an RNA virus genome and " booted " it in cell lysate.

DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds.

Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.

According to another study, when measured in a particular solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 ångströms wide ( 2. 2 to 2. 6 nanometres ), and one nucleotide unit measured 3. 3 Å ( 0. 33 nm ) long.

Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution.

DNA is a long polymer which incorporates four types of bases which are interchangeable.

Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes.

Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long ( a length to width ratio of more than 10 million to one in human DNA ).

After the rumors surfaced that Bay's natural father was a filmmaker, there was much speculation about Frankenheimer, who continued to deny the story and told the Los Angeles Times that there had once been " tests " to determine paternity ( long before DNA testing ).

In G < sub > 1 </ sub > stage each of the chromosomes consists of a single ( very long ) molecule of DNA.

DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds.

Within cells DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.

Core particles are connected by stretches of " linker DNA ", which can be up to about 80 bp long.

Cleavage of the RNA flaps involves either endonuclease 1 ( FEN1 ) cleavage of short flaps, or coating of long flaps by the single-stranded DNA binding protein replication protein A ( RPA ) and sequential cleavage by Dna2 nuclease and FEN1.

* It can induce growth arrest by holding the cell cycle at the G < sub > 1 </ sub >/ S regulation point on DNA damage recognition ( if it holds the cell here for long enough, the DNA repair proteins will have time to fix the damage and the cell will be allowed to continue the cell cycle ).

Like DNA, RNA is made up of a long chain of components called nucleotides.

Oxygen is also commonly present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides ( in glycosidic bonds ), and DNA ( in phosphodiester bonds ).

Peptide nucleic acid ( PNA ) is an artificially synthesized polymer similar to DNA or RNA invented by Peter E. Nielsen ( Univ.

) has a specific meaning when used in the context of DNA synthesis: whereas an individual phosphoramidite nucleobase to be added to a DNA polymer has protecting groups and has its molecular weight quoted including these groups, the amount of molecular weight that is ultimately added by this nucleobase to a DNA polymer is referred to as the nucleobase's formula weight ( i. e., the molecular weight of this nucleobase within the DNA polymer, minus protecting groups ).

Mechanisms which break polymer chains are familiar to biologists because of their effect on DNA: ionizing radiation ( most commonly ultraviolet light ), free radicals, and oxidizers such as oxygen, ozone, and chlorine.

Common applications of force spectroscopy are measurements of polymer elasticity, especially biopolymers such as RNA and DNA.

* Accession number ( bioinformatics ), a unique identifier given to a biological polymer sequence ( DNA, protein ) when it is submitted to a sequence database.

After much self-inquiry, in 1944, they published in the Journal of Experimental Medicine that the active material was, indeed, DNA, bereft of protein or any other known polymer.

The formation of PAR polymer is similar to the formation of DNA polymer from nucleoside triphosphates.

The DNA double helix is a spiral polymer of nucleic acids, held together by nucleotides which base pair together.

* In the 1934 he and Einar Hammarsten showed that DNA was a polymer.

It has been shown that DNA fragments will partition into the light phase of a polymer / salt separation system.