Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth.

Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al., and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century.

The two main theories of manufacture are native Etruscan and Greek.

Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines ' ( 585 – 526 BCE ) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity.

" Scholars have put forward several theories to explain Papias: perhaps Matthew wrote two gospels, one, now lost, in Hebrew, the other our Greek version ; or perhaps the logia was a collection of sayings rather than the gospel ; or by dialektōi Papias may have meant that Matthew wrote in the Jewish style rather than in the Hebrew language.

Unlike the positivists, he did not claim that metaphysical statements must be meaningless ; he also claimed that a statement which was " metaphysical " and unfalsifiable in one century ( like the ancient Greek philosophy about atoms ) could, in another century, be developed into falsifiable theories that have the metaphysical views as a consequence, and thus become scientific.

Some of the earliest recorded speculations linked mind ( sometimes described as identical with soul or spirit ) to theories concerning both life after death, and cosmological and natural order, for example in the doctrines of Zoroaster, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient Greek, Indian and, later, Islamic and medieval European philosophers.

These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world.

Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the " intro-mission theory " and the " emission theory ".

Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis ( Ancient Greek city state ) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.

Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental Greek theories ( such as the modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos ) as well as trace rhetorical development throughout the course of history.

Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time ; its political structure ; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici ; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.

Greek contributions to science — including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning — were produced by philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades.

He had learned from the Greek apologies, and forms a direct contrast to Origen of Alexandria, who drew much of his theories regarding creation from middle platonism.

The endosymbiotic ( Greek: ἔνδον endon " within ", σύν syn " together " and βίωσις biosis " living ") theories were first articulated by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905.

There are three theories on the origin of lasagne, two of which denote an ancient Greek dish.

According to his theories, the mixed populations of Spain, most of France and Italy, most of Southern Germany, most of Switzerland and Austria, and parts of the Britain, derived from the historical development of Roman, Greek, and Ottoman Empires which had opened up Europe to non-Aryan peoples of Africa and the Mediterraneum cultures.

The Greek physician Hippocrates ( 460 – 370 BC ) incorporated the four temperaments into his medical theories.

What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired.

Gottfried Hermann of Leipzig had also written a work on Greek metres, and issued an edition of the Hecuba, in which Porson's theories were attacked.

Mary Lefkowitz, Professor Emerita of Classical Studies at Wellesley College in Massachusetts, has rejected George James's theories about Egyptian contributions to Greek civilization as being faulty scholarship.

In 1643 he published De Hellenistica Commentarius, including linguistic theories of Johann Elichmann on the origins of the Greek language.

No one seems to know where the name ' Oreo ' came from, but there are many theories, including derivations from the French word ' Or ', meaning gold ( as early packaging was gold ), or the Greek word ' Oreo ', meaning beautiful, nice or well done.

Greek philosophers and authors have had many theories of love.

Although eudaimonia was first popularized by Aristotle, it now belongs to the tradition of virtue theories generally.

The chief problem for eudaemonist theories is to show that leading a life of virtue will also be attended by happiness — by the winning of the goods regarded as the chief end of action.

( Historical Note: Prior to the coining of the term " consequentialism " by Anscombe in 1958 and the adoption of that term in the literature that followed, " utilitarianism " was the generic term for consequentialism, referring to all theories that promoted maximizing any form of utility, not just those that promoted maximizing happiness.

Following the ideas of the Academics, Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: Logic ( a very wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought ); Physics ( not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well ); and Ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve happiness through the right way of living according to Nature.

As Aristotle explored theories on the pursuit of happiness, he discussed the virtues of people surrounding him and, perhaps unintentionally, was the first person to study characters.

Several humanistic psychologists — such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm — developed theories and practices that involve human happiness.

All utilitarian theories are based upon the maxim of utility, which states that good is whatever provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: Logic ( which was a very wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought ); Physics ( including not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well ); and Ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve happiness through the right way of living according to Nature.

During those years, he devoted much consideration to the relationship between life and education, developing his theories on sōka or the creation of value, the happiness of the individual, the prosperity of society at large, and their interrelationships in practice.

Affective forecasting conflicts such as this one have also influenced theories of hedonic adaptation, which compares happiness to a treadmill, in that it remains relatively stable despite our forecasts.

But most historians now make a distinction between medical lancing ( or bloodletting ) and acupuncture in the narrower sense of using metal needles to treat illnesses by stimulating specific points along circulation channels (" meridians ") in accordance with theories related to the circulation of Qi.

Epicurus emphasized the senses in his epistemology, and his Principle of Multiple Explanations (" if several theories are consistent with the observed data, retain them all ") is an early contribution to the philosophy of science.

Though this formulation provided a key link to the low-energy limits of string theories, it was recognized that a full high-energy formulation ( or " UV-completion ") of M-theory was needed.

") Some critics have argued for more or fewer dimensions while others have proposed entirely different theories ( often assuming different definitions of " personality ").

Although the Wudang name falsely suggests these arts originated at the so-called Wudang Mountain, it is simply used to distinguish the skills, theories and applications of neijia (" internal arts ") from those of the Shaolin grouping, waijia (" hard " or " external ") martial art styles.

Such theories are described in such a way that any scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support (" verify ") or empirically contradict (" falsify ") it.

Lenin's theories on the role of a communist party were developed as the early 20th-century Russian social democracy divided into Bolshevik ( meaning " majority ") and Menshevik ( meaning " minority ") factions.

Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason (" Choice Theory ") while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices (" Just Cause Theory ").

Rather than using extroversion and introversion ( E / I ) and task / people focus, like other theories, KTS mapped the temperaments to " Sensing " and " Intuition " ( S / N, renamed " concrete " and " abstract ") with a new pair category, " cooperative " and " pragmatic ".

In 1618, Fludd wrote De Musica Mundana ( Mundane Music ) which described his theories of music, including his mundane ( also known as " divine " or " celestial ") monochord.

The Minister of Finance, Roger Douglas, was a supporter of free market theories, and sought to implement sweeping reforms (" Rogernomics ") to the economy and tax system.

European explorers had adopted the name by 1860 and reported that it was its Swahili name, with Kilimanjaro breaking into Kilima ( Swahili for " hill, little mountain ") and Njaro, whose supposed origin varies according to the theories — according to some it is an ancient Swahili word for white or for shining, or for the non-Swahili origin, a word from the Kichagga language, the word jaro meaning " caravan ".

The famous Victorian-age mathematician, logician and author, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson ( better known under the pseudonym, " Lewis Carroll ") also expressed interest in debunking illogical circle-squaring theories.

Contemporary authors propose alternative theories: according to Antiochus of Syracuse, helots were the Lacedaemonians who did not participate in the Messenian Wars ; for Ephorus of Cyme, they were the perioeci (" dwellers in surrounding communities ") from Helos, reduced to slavery after a failed revolt.

The various theories about how this happens can be split into two groups: bandwagon / underdog effects, and strategic (" tactical ") voting.

Aside from the subjectivist branch of cognitivism, some cognitive irrealist theories accept that ethical sentences can be objectively true or false, even if there exist no natural, physical or in any way real ( or " worldly ") entities or objects to make them true or false.

Theories of the four humors ( black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood ) were applied, sometimes separately ( a matter of " physic ") and sometimes combined with theories of evil spirits ( a matter of " faith ").

Accordingly, theories on the Romanian Urheimat (" homeland ") can be divided into at least two major groups.

Reader-response criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader ( or " audience ") and his or her experience of a literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or the content and form of the work.

These descended, according to the two leading theories of the expansion of IE languages, from a proto-Indo European ( proto-IE ) tongue that originated in an urheimat (" original homeland ") in S. Russia / Caucasus region, ( Kurgan hypothesis ) or in central Anatolia ( Anatolian hypothesis ).