Beginning with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of the sovereign " nation-state ", which consisted of a nation controlled by a centralized system of government.

In Germany, these nobles rose to dynastic status by preserving from the Imperial crown ( de jure after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ) the exercise of such sovereign prerogatives as the minting of money ; the muster of military troops and the right to wage war and contract treaties ; local judicial authority and constabular enforcement ; and the habit of inter-marrying with sovereign dynasties.

The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system.

After Richelieu's death the pretensions of the parlement increased ; the hereditary magistrature arrogated to itself the functions of the states-general, and in 1648 the parlement with the other sovereign courts ( the cour des aides, the grand conseil, and the cour des comptes ) met in one assembly and proposed for the royal sanction twenty-seven articles, which amounted in substance to a new constitution.

Each canton was a fully sovereign state with its own borders, army and currency from the Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648 ) until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848.

Arguably, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, by ending religious wars and creating a Germany of many small sovereign states, brought about the essential political conditions for the final development of a universally acceptable standard language in the subsequent New High German period.

In 1648 the Fronde insurrection broke out in Paris in 1648, prompted by high taxes, increased food prices and disease.

Rossi returned to France in 1648 hoping to write another opera, but no production was possible because the court had sought refuge outside Paris.

The first edition of these two sources, and of Lanfranc's writings, is that of L d ' Achery, Beati Lanfranci opera omnia ( Paris, 1648 ).

The Académie de peinture et de sculpture in Paris, established by the monarchy in 1648 ( later renamed ) was the most significant of the artistic academies, running the famous Salon exhibitions from 1725.

During the first war of the Fronde ( 1648 – 1649 ), he assisted Condé in the brief siege of Paris ( January 1649 ); and in the second war of the Fronde ( 1650 – 1653 ), remaining loyal to the queen regent Anne of Austria and the court party, he won his greatest triumph in defeating Turenne and the allied Spaniards and rebels at Retbel ( or Blanc-Champ ) in 1650.

The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture ( Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture ), Paris, was founded in 1648, modelled on Italian examples, such as the Accademia di San Luca in Rome.

In Paris, during the absence of John Byron, 1st Baron Byron in England, he obtained, through the influence, as it would seem, of Lord Jermyn, the post of temporary governor to the Duke of York ( 1648 ), and on the death of Byron ( 1652 ) took over the position.

Some time after 1648 he quarrelled with his patron and withdrew to a house in the cloister of Notre-Dame de Paris, where he gathered round him on Wednesday evenings those literary assemblies which he called " Mercuriales ".

His service seems to have been continuous until the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he returned to his father's house in Paris and married, without the consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon, a girl of great beauty, who later became the friend and confidante of Madame de Montpensier.

This edition was corrupt and full of errors but served for later editions for three centuries until the rediscovery of the 10th century Heidelberg manuscript which was taken to Rome during the Thirty Years War ( 1618 – 1648 ), then to Paris under Napoleon, and finally returned to Heidelberg in 1816.

She gave birth to a daughter, Françoise, on 10 October 1646 ( whether at Les Rochers or in Paris is not certain ), and to a son, Charles, at Les Rochers on 12 March 1648.

Archbishop Lanfranc also wrote a Chronicon Beccense of the life of Herluin, and of the first four abbots, which was published at Paris in 1648.

Within a few years they had acquired another house in Paris and set up other establishments throughout France ; missions were also sent to Italy ( 1638 ), Tunis ( 1643 ), Algiers and Ireland ( 1646 ), Madagascar ( 1648 ), Poland ( 1651 ) and Turkey ( 1783 ).

* Galland, Memoires sur la Navarre ( Paris, 1648 )

* Académie de peinture et de sculpture, ( founded 1648 ), in Paris

He lectured at the University of Copenhagen during 1648 – 1654 and lived in Paris from 1655 to 1657.

It enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Paris around 1648.

*-Polyandre, Histoire Comique, Paris, Veuve Sercy / Augustin Courbé, 1648.

He was appointed in 1648 official representative of his home county, the Franche-Comté, which allowed him to stay in Paris, but in 1653 he was banished by Cardinal Mazarin.

Omn., VII, Paris, 1857 ); Robert Bellarmine ( d. 1623 –" De gratiâ et libero arbitrio ", in Controversiæ, IV, Milan, 1621 ); Juan Martínez de Ripalda ( d. 1648 –" Adversus Baium et Baianos ", Paris, 1872 ); Stayaert ( d. 1701 –" In propositiones damnatas assertiones ", Louvain, 1753 ); Honoré Tournély ( d. 1729 –" De Gratiâ Christi ", Paris, 1726 ); Casini ( d. 1755 –" Quid est homo?

Ferréol's motive lay in hopes of making conversions, according to the Vita Ferreoli, apud Marcus Antonius Dominicy, Ausberti Familia Rediviva, published in Paris, 1648 ( Jewish Encyclopedia ).

It brought to an end the first phase of the power struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Emperors and has been interpreted as containing within itself the germ of nation-based sovereignty that would one day be confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648 ); in part this was an unforeseen result of strategic maneuvering between the Church and the European sovereigns over political control within their domains.

In the chaos following the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, General George Monck allowed the members barred in 1648 to retake their seats so that they could pass the necessary legislation to allow the Restoration and dissolve the Long Parliament.

The Sultanate of women ( 1648 – 1656 ) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons.

The 1648 Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years ' War, established the rule that prisoners of war should be released without ransom at the end of hostilities and that they should be allowed to return to their homelands.

In 1648, the Dutch built Fort Beversreede on the west bank of the Delaware, south of the Schuylkill near the present-day Eastwick section of Philadelphia, to reassert their dominion over the area.

In 1648 the Zaporizhian Host ( the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth subject ) elected the Hetman of their own ( Bohdan Khmelnytsky ) igniting the Ukrainian struggle for independence.

The Dutch had five autonomous admiralties and after 1648 these sold off many of their ships.

The Dutch had after 1648 quickly replaced the English in their traditional Iberian trade.

By spring of 1648 however he was back in Piedmont, fighting on the Piedmont-Milan border to distract the Spanish from their pressure on Modena ; in the summer, he was put in charge of an army sent on a fleet to Naples-the Naples revolt had already collapsed by then, so the expedition found no support when it landed and after some pointless actions it re-embarked, a complete failure ( some details in Naples revolt ).

By spring of 1648 however he was back in Piedmont, fighting on the Piedmont-Milan border to distract the Spanish from their pressure on Modena ; in the summer, he was put in charge of an army sent on a fleet to Naples-the Naples revolt had already collapsed by then, so the expedition found no support when it landed and after some pointless actions it re-embarked, a complete failure ( some details in Naples revolt ).

From 1641 to 1643, and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university of Oxford ; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from their positions because they would not take the Solemn League and Covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam than a learned academy ".

The Visitors, using their own authority, elected Fellows between 1648 and October 1652, when without reference to the Commissioners, John Washbourne was chosen ; the autonomy of the College in this respect seems to have been restored.

Nevertheless the Portuguese, despite having to divide their forces among Europe, Brazil and Africa, managed to retake Luanda, in Portuguese Angola, from the Dutch in 1648 and, by 1654, had recovered most of Brazil, effectively ceasing to be a viable Dutch colony.

In 1648 Oliver Cromwell's troops camped overnight on Christchurch Hill, overlooking Newport, before their attack on Newport Castle the next day.

In 1648 the Levant Company petitioned Parliament for the prohibition of imports of Turkish goods "... from Holland and other places but directly from the places of their growth.

About half the population lost their lives in the Thirty Years War between 1618 and 1648 through famine or epidemics.

She was Pauline Hébert, infant daughter of fur-trader Augustin Hébert and his wife Adrienne Du Vivier, who had come to Montreal in 1648 with Maisonneuve and their elder daughter Jeanne.

Apart from this general Messianic theory, there was another computation, based on an interpreted passage in the Zohar ( a famous Jewish mystical text ), and particularly popular among the Jews, according to which the year 1648 was to be the year of Israel's redemption by their long-awaited Jewish Messiah.

Through their offices he obtained, in 1648, the chair of Hebrew, though he lost the emoluments of the post soon after, and did not recover them till the Restoration.

Through its minor German principalities, the Swedish kings in their roles as princes and dukes, or Reichsfürsten, of the Holy Roman Empire took part in the German diets from 1648 until the dissolution of the empire in 1806.

In 1648, the Jews of Prague were again allowed a flag, in acknowledgment of their part in defending the city against the Swedes in the Battle of Prague ( 1648 ).

Similarly, when the Protector set up a House of Lords, Prynne expanded the tract in defence of their rights which he had published in 1648 into an historical treatise of five hundred pages.

Bail was refused, and, in spite of frequent petitions for their release, they remained in prison until 2 August 1648.