Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured.

This system of ' counter casting ' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.

While the Scandinavian branch emphasizes pantheist spirituality rooted in medieval and contemporary Scandinavian folklore, the American branch postulates a " native religion of the peoples of Northern Europe " reaching back into the paleolithic.

In medieval Europe, egg whites were used as glue to decorate parchments with gold leaf.

Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in Western Europe during this period in favour of gunmetals and other mixed alloys but by the end of the first Millennium AD brass artefacts are found in Scandinavian graves in Scotland, brass was being used in the manufacture of coins in Northumbria and there is archaeological and historical evidence for the production of brass in Germany and The Low Countries areas rich in calamine ore which would remain important centres of brass making throughout the medieval period, especially Dinant – brass objects are still collectively known as dinanterie in French.

Due to the rich mining history dating from medieval times ( the Black Forest was one of the most important mining regions of Europe circa 1100 ) there are many mines re-opened to the public.

When they are lit, it is a way for one to call for military aid from the other, as per its historical use in medieval Europe.

The castle ruin Hammershus, on the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest medieval fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location.

Historical accounts from medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, by Mongols, Turks and other groups, to infect enemy water supplies.

Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century and used extensively across Europe and later the Americas, Australia and North Africa.

The traditional, classical or popular ( meaning of the people ) ballad has been seen as originating with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe.

During the Viking Age, Birka ( Birca in medieval sources ), on the island of Björkö ( literally: " Birch Island ") in Sweden, was an important trading center which handled goods from Scandinavia as well as Central and Eastern Europe and the Orient.

The concept of zero ( which was also called " cipher "), which we all now think of as natural, was alien to medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say " talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher ".

The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product, expression, and property of the collective.

In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest.

Outside Europe, the escapement mechanism had been known and used in medieval China, as the Song Dynasty horologist and engineer Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) incorporated it into his astronomical clock-tower of Kaifeng in 1088.

Columbanus ( 540 – 23 November 615 ;, meaning " the white dove ") was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries on the European continent from around 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil ( in present-day France ) and Bobbio ( Italy ), and stands as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe.

However, a non-eternal cosmos, with both a beginning and an end, would later come to reflect the prevalent theological beliefs in medieval Europe.

A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie is unclear.

In a historical or geopolitical sense the term usually refers collectively to Christian majority countries or countries in which Christianity dominates or was a territorial phenomenon .“ Christendom is originally a medieval concept steadily to have evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implication practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne ; and the concept let itself to be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world .”

The Domesday Book was undertaken in 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered in medieval Europe.

In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope and the City of London Corporation.

Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords.

Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe:

The doctorate ( Latin: doceō, I teach ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach ( Latin: licentia docendi ) at a medieval university.

It is not a medieval mental quirk or an attitude `` unnourished by sense '' to believe that husbands and wives should not be subjected to such a risk, or that such a possibility should not be permitted to endanger the confidentiality of the marriage relationship.

The practice of marriage alliances was common among medieval royalty: it allowed families to stake claims of succession on each other's lands, and led to political alliances and peace treaties.

His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate, and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her – unusual in a medieval monarch.

The marriage also makes possible British descendants, a point not lost on medieval kings.

We also encounter an otherwise unrecorded daughter of Magnus Maximus, Sevira, on the Pillar of Eliseg, an early medieval inscribed stone in Wales which claims her marriage to Vortigern, king of the Britons.

The morning gift has been a customary property arrangement for marriage found first in early medieval German cultures ( such as the Lombards ) and also among ancient Germanic tribes, and the church drove its adoption into other countries in order to improve the wife's security by this additional benefit.

John Searle has used the theory of speech acts to explore the nature of social / institutional reality, so as to describe such aspects of social reality which he instances under the rubrics of “ marriage, property, hiring, firing, war, revolutions, cocktail parties, governments, meetings, unions, parliaments, corporations, laws, restaurants, vacations, lawyers, professors, doctors, medieval knights, and taxes, for example ”.

These rings date from Roman times, when the gesture of clasped hands was a symbol of pledging vows, and they were used as love and marriage rings in medieval and Renaissance Europe.

In medieval Europe, marriage was governed by canon law, which recognised as valid only those marriages where the parties stated they took one another as husband and wife, regardless of the presence or absence of witnesses.

In Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence " ( 1920 – 22 ), Vinogradoff traces the development of basic themes of jurisprudence, including marriage, property, and succession, in six different types of society: the totemistic, the tribal, the ancient city state, the medieval system of feudalism and canon law, and modern industrial society.

In the 12th century Gratian, the influential founder of Canon law in medieval Europe, accepted age of puberty for marriage to be between 12 and 14 but acknowledged consent to be meaningful if the children were older than 7.

During the Song Dynasty in medieval China, matrilocal marriage became common for wealthy, non-aristocratic families.

As Helen Cooper notes, Allison ’ s “ materials are part of the vast medieval stock of antifeminism ”, specifically St. Jerome ’ s Adversus Jovinianum, which was “ written to refute the proposition put forward by one Jovinianus that virginity and marriage were of equal worth ”.

Alisoun ’ s use of words such as “ dette ( debt )” ( III. 130 ) and “ paiement ( payment )” ( III. 131 ) also portray love in economic terms, as did the medieval Church: sex was the marriage debt women owed to the men that they married.

Another medieval variant of the legend features Ramon Berenguer painting the bars with his own blood on a yellow shield, with the yellow field of the shield being the arms of Aragon before his marriage.

They are sometimes concerned with very important issues touching on many aspects of medieval life, for example marriage and legal procedure.

Appears prominently in the fourth branch of the Mabinogi, which describes his birth, marriage, death, resurrection, and ascension to the throne of Gwynedd, and is also mentioned in the Welsh Triads and in various medieval poems.

Dr. Fauja Singh, M. A., Ph. D, Professor and Director, Department of History and Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University, Patiala, India praised Singh's marriage of yoga and religion, saying " he has helped to retrieve from its distorted image of the medieval period and has restored it to its original and meaningful usage and purpose, that is to say, the desire to attain union with God through its agency.

The Knight, the Lady, and the Priest: the making of modern marriage in medieval France, 1983.

The arrival of St. Patrick and the introduction of Christian Roman law affected the medieval Irish view of marriage.

A late medieval genealogy records his marriage to an unnamed daughter of Donmal Mor mac Turlough O ' Brien, and the descent of the Earls of Ulster and Clanricarde from their son Richard.

Both scenarios are entirely credible, knowing archaic medieval customs-nothing exculpatory can be concluded from the marriage, whereas the adoption of the stepson may be a weightier indication.

A popular medieval legend held that Muslims were the descendents of Hagar, while Christians descended from the legitimate marriage of Abraham and Sarah.