Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.

The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.

In particle physics, antimatter is material composed of antiparticles, which have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but have opposite charge and quantum spin.

After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and cosmology.

) In the field of particle physics, " shmoo " refers to a high energy survey instrument, as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation.

Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation ; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and in particle physics experiments.

After about 10 < sup >− 11 </ sup > seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments.

Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.

Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics.

The particle physics community as a whole did not view their existence as likely in 2006 ,< ref name = PDGPentaquarks2006 > W .- M. Yao et al.

Within the prevailing Standard Model of particle physics, the number of baryons may change in multiples of three due to the action of sphalerons, although this is rare and has not been observed under experiment.

Some grand unified theories of particle physics also predict that a single proton can decay, changing the baryon number by one ; however, this has not yet been observed under experiment.

Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics experiments and theory, including astrophysics, general relativity, and plasma physics.

One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to expect the universe to be flat, homogeneous and isotropic ( see the cosmological principle ).

Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found.

The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory.

The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by Andrei Sakharov in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry, between matter and antimatter.

Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and experiment, rather than through observations of the universe.

Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown.

While the detailed particle physics mechanism responsible for inflation is not known, the basic picture makes a number of predictions that have been confirmed by observation.

Theoretical condensed matter physics shares important concepts and techniques with theoretical particle and nuclear physics.

at Harvard in 1983, and obtained her Ph. D. in particle physics in 1987 under the direction of Howard Georgi.

Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter can lead to the annihilation of both, in the same way that mixing antiparticles and particles does, thus giving rise to high-energy photons ( gamma rays ) or other particle – antiparticle pairs.

Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions.

In the 1950s – 1970s, Caltech was the home of Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, whose work was central to the establishment of the Standard Model of particle physics.

# Matter exhibits a wave – particle duality.

This result establishes the principle known as wave – particle duality.

In 1999, objects large enough to be seen under an electron microscope — buckyball molecules ( diameter about 0. 7 nm, nearly half a million times larger than a proton ) — were found to exhibit wave-like interference .< ref > Nature: Wave – particle duality of C < sub > 60 </ sub > molecules, 14 October 1999.

In the case of an electron, if it is initially " observed " at a particular slit, then the observer – particle ( photon – electron ) interaction includes information about the electron's position.

The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave – particle duality.

The particle nature is more easily discerned if an object has a large mass, and it was not until a bold proposition by Louis de Broglie in 1924 that the scientific community realised that electrons also exhibited wave – particle duality.

Enrico Fermi (; 29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954 ) was an Italian physicist, naturalized American later in his life, particularly known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics.

In particle physics, a fermion ( a name coined by Paul Dirac from the surname of Enrico Fermi ) is any particle characterized by Fermi – Dirac statistics and following the Pauli exclusion principle ; fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as any composite particle made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei.

The hypothesis is that the gravitational interaction is likewise mediated by a – yet undiscovered – elementary particle, dubbed the graviton.

* Gell-Mann – Okubo mass formula in particle physics

Albert Einstein first explained the wave – particle duality of light in 1905.

A Geiger – Müller counter, also called a Geiger counter, is a type of particle detector that measures ionizing radiation.

Several fossilizations of Old Japanese grammatical elements remain in the modern language – the genitive particle tsu ( superseded by modern no ) is preserved in words such as matsuge (" eyelash ", lit.

This property is referred to as the wave – particle duality.

* Molecule ( 1794 ) – " extremely minute particle ," from Fr.

Other units commonly used are Gaussian units ( based on the cgs system ), Lorentz – Heaviside units ( used mainly in particle physics ) and Planck units ( used in theoretical physics ).

There were years of delays in subatomic particle research during World War II in 1939 – 45, with most physicists working in applied projects for wartime necessities.