Radiation, therefore, is at an initial cost disadvantage even though only 1 to 10 per cent as much radiation energy as heat energy is required for radiopasteurization or radiosterilization.

A human traveling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10 – 15 mph ( 15 – 25 km / h ) uses only the energy required to walk.

In addition, the carbon dioxide generated in the production and transportation of the food required by the bicyclist, per mile traveled, is less than 1 / 10 that generated by energy efficient cars.

This allows the energy required to move the same distance to be distributed over more pedal turns, reducing fatigue when riding uphill, with a heavy load, or against strong winds.

The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity ( a mol, kg, pound, etc.

Thus, the energy required to break any single pair is related to the energy required to break all of the pairs ( or more than just two electrons ).

Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction where many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule.

To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen.

Energetically, these bands are located between the energy of the ground state, the state in which electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, the latter describing the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material.

For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap.

* Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously.

Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.

However, this advantage is totally negated by the relatively large energy consumption required to simply move the cable over and under the numerous guide rollers and around the many sheaves.

Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.

This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed.

Origins tend to be " AT-rich " ( rich in adenine and thymine bases ) to assist this process, because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds ( rather than the three formed in a C-G pair )— in general, strands rich in these nucleotides are easier to separate since less energy is required to break relatively fewer hydrogen bonds.

But no single planetary problem ever required of Ptolemy more than six epicycles at one time.

There are in The Almagest no rules for determining in advance whether a new epicycle will be required for dealing with abberations in lunar, solar, or planetary behavior.

In any case, Miss Millay's sweet-throated bitterness, her variations on the theme that the world was not only well lost for love but even well lost for lost love, her constant and wonderfully tragic posture, so unlike that of Fitzgerald since it required no scenery or props, drew from the me that I was when I fell upon her verses an overwhelming yea.

In any case, there is no special milling or rabbeting required for the panels.

Because of the falling characteristic of the rectifier, no ballast resistor was required for stability of operation.

The following information on snakes varying greatly in size ( but all with less than a 10-foot maximum ) shows, when considered with the foregoing, that there is probably no correlation between the length of a snake and the time required for it to mature.

The list of text forms in the W-region of memory and the contents of the information cells in the X and Y-regions are no longer required.

Today, in the era of the integrated musical when an individual song must contribute to the over-all development of the show, it is understandable that a song, no matter how excellent it may be on its own terms, is cut out because it does not perform the function required of it.

Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno ' o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required.

For example, the Banach – Tarski paradox is neither provable nor disprovable from ZF alone: it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in ZF, but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition.

Although he had demonstrated no previous interest in film as a profession, Kurosawa submitted the required essay, which asked applicants to discuss the fundamental deficiencies of Japanese films and find ways to overcome them.

It is therefore better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement, but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required.

" Further, the text of the Articles of Remonstrance says that no believer can be plucked from Christ's hand, and the matter of falling away, " loss of salvation " required further study before it could be taught with any certainty.

For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here small coloured stones were used, white for yes and black for no.

Even if a supernatural cause is required, he argues, it could be something other than God ; this would mean that the phenomena of the conscience is no more supportive of monotheism than polytheism.

Thus, during the abdication crisis of 1936, caused by Edward VIII's desire to marry Wallis Simpson, the consent of all realms concerned, along with, in some cases, new acts of parliament, was required in Britain and throughout the British Dominions to allow for Edward's stepping aside and to ensure that if he had any children they would have no claim to the thrones.

For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, the time required by a single addition can no longer be assumed to be constant.

In HR-CS AAS background correction is carried out mathematically in the software using information from detector pixels that are not used for measuring atomic absorption ; hence, in contrast to LS AAS, no additional components are required for background correction.

As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT & T and Verizon have discontinued this service permanently.

with Java Web Start ( no setup required, starts from your web browser ).

Selenium and zinc are commonly referred to as antioxidant nutrients, but these chemical elements have no antioxidant action themselves and are instead required for the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, as is discussed below.

Since there is no heir to inherit Elimelech's land, levirate custom required a close relative ( usually the dead man's brother ) to marry the widow of the deceased in order to continue his family line ( Deuteronomy 25: 5 – 10 ).

Since it is written in pure Java, no native code is required.

Using this population density as a base for calculation, and allotting 10 % of food towards surplus for trade and assuming that city dwellers do no farming, he calculates that " in order to maintain a city with a population of 1, 000, and without taking the cost of transportation into account, an area of 100, 000 square kilometers would have been required.

It is also technically the easiest to steal, as it is farthest from home plate and thus a longer throw from the catcher is required to prevent it.

Criticisms and disadvantages of cycling include reduced protection in crashes, particularly with motor vehicles, longer travel time ( except in densely populated areas ), vulnerability to weather conditions, difficulty in transporting passengers, and the skill and fitness required.

In exchange, the szlachta's tax burden was reduced and they would no longer be required to pay for military expeditions expenses outside Poland.

Thus miniatures were no longer required for game play, although some players continued to use them as a visual reference.

When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed.

Loop disconnect range was restricted by telegraphic distortion and other technical problems, and placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance ( operators used an earlier kind of multi-frequency dial ) or the provision of subscriber trunk dialing equipment.

These required a longer exposure time to make the details visible.

Nowell's letter to Cecil stating: " I clearly see that my work for the Earl of Oxford cannot be much longer required " and his departure after eight months has been interpreted as either a sign of the thirteen-year-old Oxford's intractability as a pupil, or an indication that his precocity surpassed Nowell's ability to instruct him.

Most proposed advances in gun technology are based on the assumption that the solid propellant as a stand alone propulsion system is no longer capable of delivering the required muzzle energy to penetrate future tanks.

It can be used to improve peoples ' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.

The release of version 2. x in 2005 changed the game significantly, new tweaked rules favoured large cities with full trade routes as well as wars with more advanced technologies, necessitating a distinct phase of rapturing which required relatively peaceful conditions ; so games were almost always played in teams and typically took longer to finish compared to 1. x games.

In Switzerland, most residential shelters are no longer stocked with the food and water required for prolonged habitation and a large number have been converted by the owners to other uses ( e. g., wine cellars, ski rooms, gyms ).

When the required mineral nutrients are introduced into a plant's water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive.

The Bank of England then continued to use wooden tally sticks until 1826 when they were taken out of circulation and stored in the Houses of Parliament until 1834, when the authorities decided that the tallies were no longer required and that they should be burned.

Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited ( and unskilled ) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver.

The counties remain in use for some purposes, including the three-letter coding of vehicle number plates, the Royal Mail postcode address file ( which records counties in all addresses although they are no longer required for postcoded mail ) and Lord Lieutenancies ( for which the former county boroughs are also used ).

The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.

The use of digital methods for storing and retrieving information has led to the phenomenon of digital obsolescence, where a digital resource ceases to be readable because the physical media, the reader required to read the media, the hardware, or the software that runs on it, is no longer available.

The AQIS announced on June 6, 2009 that the alternative of radiation processing for cat food is no longer acceptable and that irradiated dog food is required to be labeled " Must not be fed to cats ".

Before July 1, 2010, students were required to enroll in a student union, nation or AF in order to receive grades at the university, but this is no longer compulsory.