Classical liberalism was revived in the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, and further developed by Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick, Loren Lomasky, and Jan Narveson.

Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938 – January 23, 2002 ) was an American political philosopher, most prominent in the 1970s and 1980s.

Nozick was married to the poet Gjertrud Schnackenberg.

Nozick was educated at Columbia ( A. B.

Nozick was notable for the exploratory style of his philosophizing and for his methodological ecumenism.

Often content to raise tantalizing philosophical possibilities and then leave judgment to the reader, Nozick was also notable for drawing from literature outside of philosophy ( e. g., economics, physics, evolutionary biology ).

However, it was first analyzed and was published in a philosophy paper spread to the philosophical community by Robert Nozick in 1969, and appeared in Martin Gardner's Scientific American column in 1974.

Nozick suggested a " truth tracking " theory of knowledge, in which the x was said to know P if x's belief in P tracked the truth of P through the relevant modal scenarios.

An argument similar to D ' Souza's was raised by Nozick in Anarchy, State, and Utopia, who wrote that the only way to achieve equality of opportunity was " directly worsening the situations of those more favored with opportunity, or by improving the situation of those less well-favored.

" Nozick gave an argument of two suitors competing to marry one " fair lady ": X was plain ; Y was better looking and more intelligent.

Nozick judges that Locke was wrong to imagine a contract as necessary to establish civil society.

He was a famously influential teacher ; his former students include Jerry Fodor, Raymond Geuss, Robert Nozick, and Derek Parfit.

Moreover, they assert that what really matters for assigning ownership is whether or not property was acquired or exchanged legally ( see Robert Nozick ), which is known as the historical entitlement theory, whereas Marxists assert that there are no property rights in the means of production.

Since this theorem was advanced in 1970, it has attracted a wide body of commentary from philosophers such as James M. Buchanan and Robert Nozick.

He was an opponent of influential minarchist philosopher Robert Nozick, and referred to Nozick's followers as " Nozis.

The Steiner-Vallentyne school of left-libertarianism takes a distinctive position regarding the issue that Robert Nozick calls the “ original acquisition of holdings .” That is the question of how property rights came about in the first place, and how property was originally acquired.

The phrase " Lockean Proviso " was coined by political philosopher Robert Nozick in Anarchy, State, and Utopia ch. 5, p. 175.

Philosophers in moral theory and rhetoric had taken defeasibility largely for granted when American epistemologists rediscovered Wittgenstein's thinking on the subject: John Ladd, Roderick Chisholm, Roderick Firth, Ernest Sosa, Robert Nozick, and John L. Pollock all began writing with new conviction about how appearance as red was only a defeasible reason for believing something to be red.

Nozick further claims this condition addresses a case of the sort described by D. M. Armstrong: A father believes his son innocent of committing a particular crime, both because of faith in his son and ( now ) because he has seen presented in the courtroom a conclusive demonstration of his son's innocence.

According to Stephen Metcalf, Nozick expresses serious misgivings about capitalist libertarianism, going so far as to reject much of the foundations of the theory on the grounds that personal freedom can sometimes only be fully actualized via a collectivist politics and that wealth is at times justly redistributed via taxation to protect the freedom of the many from the potential tyranny of an overly selfish and powerful few.

), ( 2004 ) Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-61514-3

Robert Nozick famously references " manna from heaven " in a thought experiment about distributive justice.

In Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Robert Nozick argues that, while the original position may be the just starting point, any inequalities derived from that distribution by means of free exchange are equally just, and that any re-distributive tax is an infringement on people's liberty.

To support the idea of the minimal state, Nozick presents an argument that illustrates how the minimalist state arises naturally from anarchy and how any expansion of state power past this minimalist threshold is unjustified.

" As the most powerful applier of principles which it grants everyone the right to apply correctly ," Nozick concludes, the dominant protection agency " enforces its will, which, from the inside, it thinks is correct.

However, the rights that Nozick takes to be fundamental and the basis for regarding them to be such are different from the equal basic liberties included in justice as fairness and Rawls conjectures that they are thus not inalienable.

" Nozick cites Patterns of Discovery from pp. 119 – 120, quoting " Though the X ( color, heat, and so on ) of an object can be explained in terms of its being composed of parts of certain X-quality ( colors in certain array, average heat of parts, and so on ), the whole realm of X cannot be explained or understood in this manner.

* John Patrick Diggins, Ellen Frankel Paul, Fred Dycus Miller, Jeffrey Paul, eds., " Sidney Hook, Robert Nozick, and the Paradoxes of Freedom ,", Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick ( Social Philosophy and Policy, vol.

The theory is Nozick's attempt to describe " justice in holdings " ( Nozick 1974: 150 )-or what can be said about and done with the property people own when viewed from a principle of justice.

Unfortunately, not everyone follows these rules: " some people steal from others, or defraud them, or enslave them, seizing their product and preventing them from living as they choose, or forcibly exclude others from competing in exchanges " ( Nozick 1974: 152 ).

A well-known critique of free-market anarchism is by Robert Nozick, who argued that a competitive legal system would evolve toward a monopoly government – even without violating individuals rights in the process.

Nozick analogizes taxation with forced labor, asking the reader to imagine a man who works longer to gain income to buy a movie ticket and a man who spends his extra time on leisure ( for instance, watching the sunset ).

Nozick instead argues that people who have or produce certain things have rights over them: " on an entitlement view, and distribution are not .. separate questions .. things come into the world already attached to people having entitlements over them " ( Nozick 1974: 160 ).

Previous holders of the chair were Robert Nozick, a philosopher, and Edward O. Wilson, the biologist, who is currently Pellegrino University Research Professor ( an emeritus professor ).

* Robert Nozick suggests knowledge must consist of justified true belief that is " truth-tracking "— belief held in such a way that if it turned out to be false it would not have been held, and vice versa ;

This for a long time has been the most prevalent defense of toleration by liberals ... It is found, for example, in the writings of American philosophers John Rawls, Robert Nozick, Ronald Dworkin, Brian Barry, and a Canadian, Will Kymlicka, among others.

Despite these comments, Marx has been criticised strongly for adding the " socially necessary " qualification to labour time by the libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick in Anarchy, State and Utopia, for whom it is an unjustified ' bolt-on ' aspect of Marx's theory.

# No existing State has been " immaculately conceived " in the way envisaged by Nozick ;

Pogge insists that Rawls has been importantly misunderstood by his most influential critics, including the libertarian Robert Nozick and the communitarian Michael Sandel.

Neo-classical liberalism has continued into the contemporary era, with writers such as Robert Nozick.

Nozick suggests that citizens opposed to wealth redistribution that funds programs they object to should be able to opt out by supporting alternative government approved charities with an added 5 % surcharge.

* An interview with Jan Narveson about the philosophy of Robert Nozick by Peter Jaworski

* 1997, " Assisted Suicide: The Philosophers ' Brief " ( with R. Dworkin, R. Nozick, J. Rawls, T. Scanlon, and J. J. Thomson ), New York Review of Books, March 27, 1997.

Another Harvard colleague, Michael Walzer, wrote a defense of communitarian political philosophy, Spheres of Justice, as a result of a seminar he co-taught with Nozick.

Rawls's Harvard colleague Robert Nozick countered the liberal A Theory of Justice with a libertarian Anarchy, State, and Utopia, also grounded in the state of nature tradition.

Nozick argued against equality of opportunity on the grounds that it violates the rights of property, since the equal opportunity maxim interferes with an owner's right to do what he or she pleases with a property.

Overall, the Democratic Party advocates economic policies pretty close to " liberalism " in the sense of John Rawls ( rather than, say, of Robert Nozick or Friedrich Hayek, as commonly accepted outside North America ), in sharp contrast with the traditional radical free-market orientation of Hong Kong.

" in Giovanna Borradori, The American philosopher: Conversations with Quine, Davidson, Putnam, Nozick, Danto, Rorty, Cavell, MacIntyre, Kuhn ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994 ) 137-152.

Walzer taught a semester-long course with Robert Nozick in 1971 called " Capitalism and Socialism ".

In opposition to A Theory of Justice by John Rawls, and in debate with Michael Walzer, Nozick argues in favor of a minimal state, " limited to the narrow functions of protection against force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on.

Nozick argues that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own non-aggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage.

Thus Nozick argues that what the Wilt Chamberlain example shows is that no patterned principle of just distribution will be compatible with liberty.

Anarchy, State, and Utopia came out of a semester-long course that Nozick taught with Michael Walzer at Harvard in 1971, called Capitalism and Socialism.

Unusually for a law professor without a graduate degree in philosophy, he has published significant work in moral and political theory only indirectly related to the law ; Right and Wrong, for instance is an impressive general statement of a Kantian position in ethics with affinities with the work of Thomas Nagel, John Rawls, and Robert Nozick.

He is author of Elements of Justice ( Cambridge, 2006 ), Rational Choice and Moral Agency ( Princeton, 1995 ), co-author of Social Welfare and Individual Responsibility ( Cambridge, a “ For & Against ” book with Robert Goodin ) and editor of a volume on Robert Nozick in the Cambridge University Press " Contemporary Philosophy in Focus " series.