Philosophers associated with empiricism include Aristotle, Alhazen, Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, Robert Grosseteste, William of Ockham, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, Robert Boyle, John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, Leopold von Ranke, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Popper.

According to Baird's Manual, nine undergraduates at Union College in Schenectady, New York — John Hart Hunter, John McGeoch, Isaac W. Jackson, Thomas Hun, Orlando Meads, James Proudfit, and Joseph Anthony Constant of the class of 1826, and Arthur Burtis and Joseph Law of the Class of 1827 — established the Society on November 26, 1825 from an informal group calling itself The Philosophers, which was established by Hunter, Jackson, and Hun in 1823.

Philosophers of science argue over the epistemological limits of such a consensus and some, including Thomas Kuhn, have pointed to the existence of scientific revolutions in the history of science as being an important indication that scientific consensus can, at times, be wrong.

Philosophers working in the intersection of Thomism and analytic philosophy include: David Braine, Brian Davies OP ( Fordham ), Gabriele De Anna ( Udine ), John Finnis ( Oxford ), Peter Geach, John Haldane ( St Andrews ), Jonathan Jacobs ( Colgate ), Anthony Kenny ( Oxford ), Fergus Kerr OP ( Oxford ), Gyula Klima ( Fordham ), Norman Kretzmann, John Lamont, Anthony J. Lisska ( Denison ), Alasdair MacIntyre ( Notre Dame ), Bruce D. Marshall ( Southern Methodist Univ ), William Marshner ( Christendom ), Christopher Martin ( St Thomas, Houston ), Cyrille Michon ( Nantes, France ), Mark Murphy ( Georgetown ), Herbert McCabe, John P. O ' Callaghan ( Notre Dame ), Claude Panaccio ( UQAM ), Robert Pasnau ( CU Boulder ), Craig Paterson ( Independent Scholar ), Roger Pouivet ( Nancy, France ) Matthew S. Pugh ( Providence College ), Eleonore Stump ( Saint Louis ), Thomas Sullivan and Sandra Menssen ( University of St. Thomas, MN ), Stephen Theron, Denys Turner ( Yale ), Michael Thompson ( Pittsburgh ).

Philosophers and intellectuals included Thomas More and Francis Bacon.

Philosophers like John Rawls, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau helped created the foundation of social contract.

Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.

Philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties.

Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in the famous 11th of his Theses on Feuerbach, " Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways ; the point is to change it.

Philosophers who have criticized the concept of human rights include Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, Friedrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx.

Philosophers have developed two rival theories for how this happens, called endurantism and perdurantism.

Philosophers, such as Fiona Cowie and Barbara Scholz with Geoffrey Pullum have also argued against certain nativist claims in support of empiricism.

Philosophers Randall Dipert and Roderick Long have argued that Objectivist epistemology conflates the perceptual process by which judgments are formed with the way in which they are to be justified, thereby leaving it unclear how judgments with propositional structure can be validated by sensory data.

Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways.

Philosophers across many traditions, from Stoicism to Buddhism, have suggested that a spiritual practice is essential for personal well being.

Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity ( i. e. endowed it with a sui generis existence ), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context ( Sober 1992 ).

Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what gives a scientific theory explanatory power.

Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, Aquinas and Hegel are sometimes said to have argued that reason must be fixed and discoverable — perhaps by dialectic, analysis, or study.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

Philosophers have argued that either Determinism is true or Indeterminism is true, but also that Free Will either exists or it does not.

Philosophers have long ignored this problem and devised systems of ethics that are powerless against our temporally biased policies.

Philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and constructing scientific theories.

Philosophers and social psychologists have noted that pride is a complex secondary emotion which requires the development of a sense of self and the mastery of relevant conceptual distinctions ( e. g., that pride is distinct from happiness and joy ) through language-based interaction with others.

Most of the biographical information we have of Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius ' Lives of the Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus ' time.

Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis.

Philosophers and scientists such as Victor Reppert, William Hasker and Alvin Plantinga have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the " Argument from Reason " and credit C. S.

Philosophers such as Karl Popper and John Eccles and quantum physicist Henry Stapp have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply even at the macroscopic scale.

This idealist understanding of philosophy as interpretation was famously challenged by Karl Marx's 11th thesis on Feuerbach ( 1845 ): " Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways ; the point, however, is to change it.

Philosophers, such as Karl R. Popper, have provided influential theories of the scientific method within which scientific evidence plays a central role.

Philosophers such as Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full Moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.

Philosophers of science, such as Paul Feyerabend, argued that a distinction between science and nonscience is neither possible nor desirable.

It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Ghazali in his work, " Tahafut al-Falasifa " ( The Incoherence of the Philosophers ), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism.

It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Al-Ghazali in his work, Tahafut al-Falasifa ( The Incoherence of the Philosophers ), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism.

Philosophers often attempt to prove the ontological argument wrong by comparing Anselm's with Gaunilo's.

Philosophers identify independent, logical reasoning as a precondition to most western science, engineering, economic and political theory.

* Molefi Kete Asante, professor, author: Afrocentricity: The theory of Social Change ; The Afrocentric Idea ; The Egyptian Philosophers: Ancient African Voices from Imhotep to Akhenaten

* Defends a coherence theory of truth in a manner differing somewhat from that of classical idealism ; see e. g. his exchange in The Philosophy of Brand Blanshard ( in the Library of Living Philosophers series );

Sir, I must now again beg you, not to let your resentments run so high, as to deprive us of your third book, wherein the application of your mathematical doctrine to the theory of comets and several curious experiments, which, as I guess by what you write, ought to compose it, will undoubtedly render it acceptable to those, who will call themselves Philosophers without Mathematics, which are much the greater number.

Philosophers and psychologists in the 1930s and 40 ’ s such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Morton Deutsh also influenced the cooperative learning theory practiced today.

The Incoherence of the Philosophers is famous for proposing and defending the Asharite theory of occasionalism.

Philosophers in moral theory and rhetoric had taken defeasibility largely for granted when American epistemologists rediscovered Wittgenstein's thinking on the subject: John Ladd, Roderick Chisholm, Roderick Firth, Ernest Sosa, Robert Nozick, and John L. Pollock all began writing with new conviction about how appearance as red was only a defeasible reason for believing something to be red.