Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.

Philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties.

Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in the famous 11th of his Theses on Feuerbach, " Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways ; the point is to change it.

Philosophers who have criticized the concept of human rights include Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, Friedrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx.

Philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin have argued that Sartre's attempt to show that Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken is based on a misinterpretation of Freud.

Philosophers, such as Fiona Cowie and Barbara Scholz with Geoffrey Pullum have also argued against certain nativist claims in support of empiricism.

Philosophers Randall Dipert and Roderick Long have argued that Objectivist epistemology conflates the perceptual process by which judgments are formed with the way in which they are to be justified, thereby leaving it unclear how judgments with propositional structure can be validated by sensory data.

Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways.

Philosophers across many traditions, from Stoicism to Buddhism, have suggested that a spiritual practice is essential for personal well being.

Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity ( i. e. endowed it with a sui generis existence ), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context ( Sober 1992 ).

Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what gives a scientific theory explanatory power.

Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, Aquinas and Hegel are sometimes said to have argued that reason must be fixed and discoverable — perhaps by dialectic, analysis, or study.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

Philosophers have argued that either Determinism is true or Indeterminism is true, but also that Free Will either exists or it does not.

Philosophers have long ignored this problem and devised systems of ethics that are powerless against our temporally biased policies.

Philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and constructing scientific theories.

Philosophers and social psychologists have noted that pride is a complex secondary emotion which requires the development of a sense of self and the mastery of relevant conceptual distinctions ( e. g., that pride is distinct from happiness and joy ) through language-based interaction with others.

Most of the biographical information we have of Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius ' Lives of the Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus ' time.

Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis.

Philosophers and scientists such as Victor Reppert, William Hasker and Alvin Plantinga have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the " Argument from Reason " and credit C. S.

Philosophers such as Karl Popper and John Eccles and quantum physicist Henry Stapp have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply even at the macroscopic scale.

This idealist understanding of philosophy as interpretation was famously challenged by Karl Marx's 11th thesis on Feuerbach ( 1845 ): " Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways ; the point, however, is to change it.

Philosophers, such as Karl R. Popper, have provided influential theories of the scientific method within which scientific evidence plays a central role.

Philosophers in ancient societies were interested in how humans acquired the ability to understand and produce language well before empirical methods for testing those theories were developed, but for the most part they seemed to regard language acquisition as a subset of man's ability to acquire knowledge and learn concepts.

Philosophers and theologians aiming to defend theism against the threat of the dilemma have developed a variety of responses.

The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three letters, which are to be found in book X of Diogenes Laertius ' Lives of Eminent Philosophers, and two groups of quotes: the Principal Doctrines, reported as well in Diogenes ' book X, and the Vatican Sayings, preserved in a manuscript from the Vatican Library.

Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists ( also called Dogmatists or Philosophers ), with the Methodists being a smaller group.

Philosophers such as Patricia Churchland posit that the drug-mind interaction is indicative of an intimate connection between the brain and the mind, not that the two are the same entity.

Zëna Ayhud ( Jews Story ) and fālasfā ( Philosophers ) are two books that are not holy but still have a great influence.

Philosophers have described these as Kant ’ s " two worlds " – the world of nature ( which leads to determinism ), and the world of freedom ( where responsibility is found ).

Philosophers of language and semioticians construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or communication.

Philosophers, scientists, and educators that have proposed theories of spiritual evolution include Schelling, Hegel, Max Théon, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Henri Bergson, Rudolf Steiner, Sri Aurobindo, Jean Gebser, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Owen Barfield, Arthur M. Young, Edward Haskell, E. F. Schumacher, Erich Jantsch, Clare W. Graves, Alfred North Whitehead, Terence McKenna, P. R.

In fact, the attacks directed against the philosophers by Gazzali in his work, " TuḦfat al-Falasafa " ( The Destruction of the Philosophers ), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism, they thereafter making their theories clearer and their logic closer.

Philosophers such as Kant, Schiller and Hegel, and political philosophers such as Marx, presented general theories of history that shared essential characteristics with the Biblical account: they conceived of history as a coherent whole, governed by certain basic characteristics or immutable principles.

Philosophers ( and other users of logic ) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ( or intentionally adding ) ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments.

* Føllesdal, Dagfinn, 1972, " An Introduction to Phenomenology for Analytic Philosophers " in Olson, R. E., and Paul, A. M., eds., Contemporary Philosophy in Scandinavia.

* Concerned Philosophers for Peace

Philosophers offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems ; they argue for those solutions ; and then other philosophers provide counter arguments, expecting to eventually come up with better solutions.

Philosophers such as Condorcet, who drafted the French revolutionary chart for a people's education under the rule of reason, dismissed rhetoric as an instrument of oppression in the hands of clerics in particular.

Philosophers and politicians advocating for republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on these sources.

Philosophers also vary in the question of whether language is basically a tool for representing and referring to objects in the world, or whether it is a system used to construct mental representations of the world that can be shared and circulated between people.

* Intellectual Biography of Nikolai Trubetzkoy at the Gallery of Russian Thinkers ( International Society for Philosophers )

Philosophers know all too well, from dealing with for example the problem of substance and the problem of universals, that general " What is " questions ( ti esti questions ) give an overly simple appearance to what is in fact a very complex affair.

Philosophers welcome this, because every ontological primitive demands a special explanation for its existence.

Idle is an accomplished songwriter, having composed and performed many of the Pythons ' most famous comic pieces, including " Eric the Half-a-Bee ", " The Philosophers ' Song ", " Galaxy Song ", " Penis Song ( Not the Noel Coward Song )" and, probably his most recognised hit, " Always Look on the Bright Side of Life ", which was written for the closing scene of the Monty Python film Life of Brian, and sung from the crosses during the mass crucifixion.

Nothing is known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is one of the principal surviving sources for the history of Greek philosophy.

: Philosophers, incidentally, say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and probably wrong

A book by designer Leonard Koren ( b. 1948 ), Wabi-Sabi for Artists, Designers, Poets & Philosophers, published in 1994, offered an original interpretation of the conjoined " wabi-sabi " concept as a separate aesthetic paradigm contrasting with prevailing Western ideas of beauty.

Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) is most famous for his commentaries on Aristotle's works and for writing The Incoherence of the Incoherence in which he defended the falasifa against al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers.

According to Diogenes Laertius, Solon “ diminished the honours paid to Athletes who were victorious in the games, fixing the prize for a victor at Olympia at five hundred drachmae, and for one who conquered at the Isthmian games at one hundred ” ( Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Philosophers 1. 55: Solon ; Greek ).

Philosophers, following Joel Feinberg's influential book Harm to Self ( 1986 ), usually use " soft paternalism " for paternalism towards a person whose action or choice is insufficiently voluntary to be genuinely hers.

Philosophers and scientists who follow the Bayesian framework for inference use the mathematical rules of probability to find this best explanation.