Spalling can also occur as an effect of cavitation, where fluids are subjected to localized low pressures that cause vapor bubbles to form, typically in pumps, water turbines, vessel propellers, and even piping under some conditions.

Spalling provides a potential mechanism whereby material may be ejected into inter-planetary space largely undamaged, and whereby small volumes of the impactor may be preserved undamaged even in large impacts.

Spalling and spallation both describe the process of surface failure in which spall is shed.

Spalling occurs in preference to brinelling where the maximal shear stress occurs not at the surface, but just below, shearing the spall off.

Spalling stopped at the steel reinforcement, approximately 3 " ( 75 mm ) below the concrete surface.

In fact it has caused us to give serious thought to moving our residence south, because it is not easy for the most objective Southerner to sit calmly by when his host is telling a roomful of people that the only way to deal with Southerners who oppose integration is to send in troops and shoot the bastards down.

Was it supposed, perchance, that A & M ( vocational training, that is ) was quite sufficient for the immigrant class which flooded that part of the New England world in the post-Civil War period, the immigrants having been brought in from Southern Europe, to work in the mills, to make up for the labor shortage caused by migration to the West??

Accordingly the request was granted, but the Elector himself, who had not been consulted by his mother, rejected the proposal and recalled his agent Schutz, whose impolitic handling of the affair had caused the Hanoverian interest to suffer and had made Oxford's dismissal more likely than ever.

Heat during the Atlanta campaign, coupled with unsuitable clothing, caused individual irritation that was compounded by a lack of opportunity to bathe and shift into clean clothing.

The thunderclaps over the sacred wood at Colonus and the storms in King Lear are caused by more than weather.

This intervention could only be controlled by priests, and thus the invasions caused a rapid rise in the influence of the sacred class.

In that decade the partisan zeal to defend Mr. Hoover, and the party's failure to anticipate or cope with the depression, caused a great majority of Americans to see the Republican party as cold and lacking in any sympathy for the problems of human beings caught up in the distress and suffering brought on by the economic crash.

The amazing thing is that this too is caused by the dearth of teachers.

The wraith-like events of the last few days flooded David's mind and he rubbed his unshaved chin and felt again the ache in his kidneys caused by his saddle odyssey from Boston.

In 1947, affidavits were filed with the Commission by various clear-channel stations alleging that extensive interference was being caused to the service areas of these stations during daylight hours, from class 2, stations whose signals were being reflected from the ionosphere so as to create skywave intereference.

He devised a detonating fuse in which a short wire was caused to glow by an electric current.

In this manner, he seeks to expunge from his own soul the guilt pangs caused by his personal assaults against the English at Dunkirk.

The actual change Af caused by a shear field is calculated by multiplying the pressure differential times the volume, just as it is for any gravitational or osmotic pressure head.

If Af is the change per unit volume in Gibbs function caused by the shear field at constant P and T, and **yr is the density of the fluid, then the total potential energy of the system above the reference height is Af.

This method can be extended to include the concentration differences caused by shear fields.

The small reaction occurring at 337-degrees-C is probably caused by decomposition of occluded nitrates, and perhaps by a small amount of some hydrous material other than Af.

The Russian experimenters claim that only a small fraction of the impulse from the sensors is caused by the incident momentum with the remainder being momentum of ejected material from the sensor.

However, it is not known to either the union or the public precisely how much of a cost increase is caused by a given change in the basic wage rate, although the companies are presumed to have reliable estimates of this magnitude.

They may be caused by poor health habits, such as faulty eating and sleeping habits.

Despite the excitement being caused by the trial and sentence of John Brown, Rhode Islanders turned their attention to the state elections.

A second factor which enters into the practical measurement of the instrumentally determined cutting force is the frictional resistance caused by the bottom of the knife against the substrate.

Since the load L, under actual cutting conditions is caused by Af, it can be seen that Af

There will be losses caused by emergencies that arise while he is away at his off-farm job.

Monochromatic aberrations are caused by the geometry of the lens and occur both when light is reflected and when it is refracted.

Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflected the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe.

According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration.

The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season.

Adjusting the timing between when the transmitter sends a pulse and when the receiver stage is enabled will generally reduce the sunburst without affecting the accuracy of the range, since most sunburst is caused by a diffused transmit pulse reflected before it leaves the antenna.

Light, which comes both horizontally and vertically inverted after passing through the lens, is reflected upwards by the reflex mirror, into the pentaprism where it is reflected several times to correct the inversions caused by the lens, and align the image with the viewfinder.

A watermark is a recognizable image or pattern in paper that appears as various shades of lightness / darkness when viewed by transmitted light ( or when viewed by reflected light, atop a dark background ), caused by thickness or density variations in the paper.

This somewhat breaks up the simple reflections otherwise caused by bare flat surfaces, and spreads the reflected energy of an incident wave over a larger angle on reflection.

For example, according to one anti-nuclear activist, Harvey Wasserman, the fallout caused " a plague of death and disease among the area's wild animals and farm livestock ", including a sharp fall in the reproductive rate of the region's horses and cows, reflected in statistics from Pennsylvania's Department of Agriculture, though the Department denies a link with TMI.

The price reflected a US $ 200 million discount on the originally agreed figure, caused by the public disclosure of the defect cover-up scandal.

Hastings supports Buckley's conclusion, acknowledging that although the Tiger was " incomparably " more deadly than the British Cromwell tank, the " shambles " caused by Wittmann's tanks reflected poorly on the tactical handling of the British force.

This is termed arc eye, while photokeratitis caused by exposure to sunlight reflected from ice and snow, particularly at elevation, is commonly called snow blindness.

The iridescent colours of a soap film are caused by interfering of ( internally and externally ) reflected light waves, a process called thin film interference and are determined by the thickness of the film.

This phenomenon is not the same as the origin of rainbow colours ( caused by the refraction of internally reflected light ), but rather are the same as the phenomenon causing the colours in an oil slick on a wet road.

From 395, the division of the empire between eastern and western rulers again caused the neglect of the Rhine frontier, reflected in the transfer of the Gallic prefect to Arelate ( Arles ).

Some residents of the neighboring condominiums suffered glare caused by sunlight that was reflected off these surfaces and concentrated in a manner similar to a parabolic mirror.

Other examples include Canis simensis, which has undergone many popular name changes, as its intermediate morphology had caused some to think of it as a jackal or a fox ; but current taxonomic and genetic consensus is reflected in its " official name ", the Ethiopian wolf.

Leonardo explained that the pale glow on the dark portion of the crescent moon is caused by sunlight reflected from the Earth.

A white eye reflection is not always a positive indication of retinoblastoma and can be caused by light being reflected badly or by other conditions such as Coats ' Disease.

The Gates of Heaven and several of her albums in those years reflected an optimistic atmosphere in Japan caused by the asset price bubble around the end of the 1980s and early 90s.

Her acceptance caused adversity elsewhere, however, as Meadow struggled with depression and mildly flirted with alcohol and drug abuse, which reflected on her subsequent year in college.

A quality cable should not suffer from signal crosstalk which occurs when the signals in one wire induce unwanted currents in adjacent wires, ghosting which occurs when impedance mismatches cause signals to be reflected ( note that ghosting with long cables may not be the fault of the cable but may instead be caused by equipment with incorrect termination or by use of passive splitters ), and other signal degradation effects ; shorter VGA cables are less likely to introduce significant degradation.