The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium (" answers of the learned ones ") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.

He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus and accumulated a sylloge of Roman inscriptions from Milan and its territories, as part of his preparation for his history of Milan, written in 1504-05.

When the Roman Empire turned Christian during the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more metaphysical sense, and removed legal impediments to the development and public use of the Anno Domini dating system, which came into general use during the reign of Charlemagne.

Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian's Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 15th century such as Grotius and Voet.

* Civil law ( legal system ) ( or " Continental law "), any of the various systems or codes of law which are derived from Roman law historically

Coupled with the more diffuse political structure based on smaller feudal units, various legal traditions emerged, remaining more strongly rooted in Roman jurisprudence, but modified to meet the prevailing political climate.

The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrates in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office.

The Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe, much later than Roman law but predating evolution of modern European civil law traditions.

What began with rules (" canons ") adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the first century has developed into a highly complex legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew ( Old Testament ), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions.

** Romano-Germanic subgroup ( comprising those legal systems where legal science was formulated according to Roman Law-see also Civil law ( legal system ))

According to David, the Romano-Germanic legal systems included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman Law, whereas common law countries are those where law was created from the judges.

Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent-based design of the Roman legal system, the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance.

The emperor gave them legal status within the entire Roman Empire.

The Roman Catholic Church does not consider the validity of an ecumenical council's teaching to be in any way dependent on where it is held or on the granting or withholding of prior authorization or legal status by any state, in line with the attitude of the 5th-century bishops who " saw the definition of the church's faith and canons as supremely their affair, with or without the leave of the Emperor " and who " needed no one to remind them that Synodical process pre-dated the Christianisation of the royal court by several centuries ".

Still, Luther insisted that the letter upheld the social status quo: though not explicit, the text could be interpreted to indicate that Paul did nothing to change Onesimus's legal position as a slave and that Paul was complying with Roman law in returning him to Philemon.

The Visigoths tended to maintain more of the old Roman institutions, and they had a unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between 415, when Visigothic rule in Spain began, and 711, when it is traditionally said to end.

For more than 400 years, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were wealthy Roman provinces and part of a cosmopolitan state whose citizens shared a common language, legal system, and Roman identity.

It was during the Eastern Roman Empire ( 5th century ) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was born.

But beginning, for all practical purposes, with Frederick Seebohm's English Village Community scholars have had to reckon with a theory involving institutional and agrarian continuity between Roman and Anglo-Saxon times which is completely at odds with the reigning concept of the Anglo-Saxon invasions.

When the Western Roman Empire was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Catholic Church as a spiritual City of God ( in a book of the same name ), distinct from the material Earthly City.

The Eastern Orthodox generally recognize Roman Catholic orders, but have a different concept of the apostolic succession as it exists outside of Eastern Orthodoxy.

Quite possibly it was a survival of a Roman concept of " Britain ": it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the title rex Britanniae, when England was unified the title used was rex Angulsaxonum, (' king of the Anglo-Saxons '.

The Roman Catholic Church likewise treats it as any other act of renunciation of the Catholic faith, although for a few years, from 2006 to 2009, it did note in the baptismal register any formal act of defection from the Catholic Church, a concept quite distinct from that of presentation of such a certificate.

Some Anglicans consider their church a branch of the " One Holy Catholic Church " alongside of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a concept rejected by the Roman Catholic Church and some Eastern Orthodox.

* The Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero ( or empty space ).

The ancient Roman concept of virtus ( i. e. of virtue that had to be proved by a political or military career ), which Cicero suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late Republic, meant little to them.

The most significant Roman Law concept involved dominion.

In a historical or geopolitical sense the term usually refers collectively to Christian majority countries or countries in which Christianity dominates or was a territorial phenomenon .“ Christendom is originally a medieval concept steadily to have evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implication practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne ; and the concept let itself to be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world .”

The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire.

Despite his Roman Catholic post, Garvin described his spiritual position as " pandeism ' or ' pan-en-deism ,' something very close to the Native American concept of the all-pervading Great Spirit ..."

However, this overlooks those parts of scripture which provide for the doctrine of the " Two Swords " and for the medieval Roman Catholic concept of the powers of kings to protect the Christian Constitution of states, to defend and extend the boundaries of Christendom by lawful means only, to protect and defend the innocent, the weak, the poor and the vulnerable, and to protect the church and the papacy with the king's own life, if necessary.

Although some Protestants reject the concept of an ecumenical council establishing doctrine for the entire Christian faith, Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox all accept the authority of ecumenical councils in principle.

This concept became a key element of the meaning of " emperor " in the Byzantine and Orthodox east, but went out of favor with in the west with the rise of Roman Catholicism.

The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul ( France ), which he had conquered.

In AD 295 incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of unequal gravity: the incestus iuris gentium, which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the incestus iuris civilis, which concerned only Roman citizens.

" British Imperialist strategy often but not always used the concept of terra nullius ( Latin expression which stems from Roman law meaning ‘ empty land ’).

Overall, his early love of Roman and Italian landscapes and of nature led to his interest in the concept of regular division of a plane, which he applied in over 150 colored works.

* Law of Citations ( Roman concept )

Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also ( in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily ) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region.

Authority in the Roman Church is the exertion of that imperium from which England in the 16th century finally and decisively declared its national independence as the alter imperium, the " other empire ", of which Henry VIII declared " This realm of England is an empire " ...

Essentially, the Greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the Ancient Roman concepts that distinguished imperium from other forms of political power.

The common contemporary Latin legal term used in documents of the Holy Roman Empire was for a long time regnum (" rule, domain, empire ", such as in Regnum Francorum for the Frankish Kingdom ) before imperium was in fact adopted, the latter first attested in 1157, whereas the parallel use of regnum never fell out of use during the Middle Ages.

A dictator would have complete authority over civil and military matters within the Roman imperium, and was not legally responsible for his actions as a dictator and therefore was unquestionable.

Moreover, Jupiter promised that at the sunrise of the following day he would give to Numa and the Roman people pawns of the imperium.

Plutarch gives a slightly different version of the story, writing that the miraculous dropping of the shield was a plague and not linking it with the Roman imperium.

During the 260s, the breakup of the Roman Empire into three distinct governing entities ( the core Roman Empire, the Gallic Empire and the Palmyrene Empire ) placed the whole Roman imperium into a precarious position.

* The Roman Senate granted Octavian Caesar the title imperium maius ( supreme commander ) of the Roman armed forces ( 50 legions ).

Unlike the earlier First Triumvirate, the Second Triumvirate was an official, legally established institution, whose overwhelming power in the Roman state was given full legal sanction and whose imperium maius outranked that of all other magistrates, including the consuls.

The divinity sometimes appears as Aeternitas Imperii ( the " Eternity of Roman rule "), where the Latin word imperium (" command, power ") points toward the meaning " empire ," the English word derived from it.

There was an exercitus, imperium, iudicia, honorēs, consulēs, voluntās of this same populus: " the army, rule, judgments, offices, consuls and will of the Roman people ".

Another technical use of the term in Roman law was for the power to extend the law, beyond its mere interpretation, extending imperium from formal legislators under the ever-republican constitution: popular assemblies, senate, magistrates, emperor and their delegates to the jurisprudence of jurisconsults.

While the Byzantine Eastern Roman Emperors retained full Roman imperium and made the episcopate subservient, in the feudal West a long rivalry would oppose the claims to supremacy within post-Roman Christianity between sacerdotium ( the ' priesthood ', i. e. the clergy ministering the word and will of God ) in the person of the Pope and the secular imperium of the revived Western Roman Emperor since Charlemagne.

In the numerous manifestos of the pope and the emperor the antagonism of Church and State becomes daily more evident: the pope claimed for himself the imperium animarum ' command of the souls ' ( i. e. voicing Gods will to the faithful ) and the principatus rerum et corporum in universo mundo ' princedom over all things and bodies in the whole world ', while the emperor wished to restore the imperium mundi, imperium ( as under Roman Law ) over the ( now Christian ) world — Rome was again to be the capital of the world and Frederick was to become the real emperor of the Romans, so he energetically protested against the world-empire of the pope.