This concept has stimulated much basic research concerning the behavior of particulate biological materials, the pathogenesis of respiratory infections, the medical management of such diseases and defense against their occurrence.

271 - 307 ) indicate, that the concept of function in sociology has been built up from physiological and biological models, in which the notions of teleology, i.e., metaphysical purpose, are central.

Richard Dawkins in his book River Out of Eden used the computer bootstrapping concept to explain how biological cells differentiate: " Different cells receive different combinations of chemicals, which switch on different combinations of genes, and some genes work to switch other genes on or off.

The same concept is true for ethics and religion, as these concepts are at their core biological and evolutionary.

His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept.

After articulating the biological species concept in 1942, Mayr played a central role in the species problem debate over what was the best species concept.

He staunchly defended the biological species concept against the many definitions of " species " that others proposed.

Evolutionism refers to the biological concept of evolution, specifically to a widely held 19th century belief that organisms are intrinsically bound to increase in complexity.

Inspired by the biological concept and usefulness of genotypes, computer science employs simulated phenotypes in genetic programming and evolutionary algorithms.

Notably, Behe credits philosopher William Paley for the original concept, not von Bertalanffy, and suggests that his application of the concept to biological systems is entirely original.

In contrast, the concept of genetics gained concrete evidence with the discovery of the biological functions of DNA.

According to the biological species concept, these will be two different species.

* Balance of nature ( biological fallacy ): A discredited concept of natural equilibrium in predator: prey dynamics.

It may also seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the ( living ) organism in itself, meaning that the lowest level of biological organization compatible with the phenotype concept is at the cellular level.

This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate.

In a 1995 article, Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Jackson suggested that any new support for a biological concept of race will likely come from the study of human evolution.

Reincarnation is the religious or philosophical concept that the soul or spirit, after biological death, begins a new life in a new body that may be human, animal or spiritual depending on the moral quality of the previous life's actions.

It is related to the concept of 內外 " 邪 " nèi-wàixié in Chinese medicine, being more aligned with Claude Bernard, and Antoine Bechamp's biological terrain theory of disease.

* Centers ( Fourth Way ), a human biological, psychological and spiritual nexus of energy process, equivalent to the concept of a Chakra

* Reliability theory, as a theoretical concept, to explain biological aging and species longevity

Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins employs the typing monkey concept in his book The Blind Watchmaker to demonstrate the ability of natural selection to produce biological complexity out of random mutations.

The concept can also be applied to chemical or biological warfare.

A relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric ( e. g., the equality relation ), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric ( e. g., the " preys on " relation on biological species ).

Scientific classification in botany is a method by which botanists group and categorize organisms by biological type, such as genus or species.

The class of grammar-based codes are recently noticed because they can extremely compress highly repetitive text, for instance, biological data collection of same or related species, huge versioned document collection, internet archives, etc.

To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, and up to the level of the biosphere.

The habitat plus the niche is called the ecotope, which is defined as the full range of environmental and biological variables affecting an entire species.

Haeckel promoted and popularized Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the controversial recapitulation theory (" ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny ") claiming that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarizes its species ' evolutionary development, or phylogeny.

Comparing different embryonic stages of different animals is a tool that can be used to infer relationships between species, and thus biological evolution.

A genus – differentia definition is a type of intensional definition which defines a species ( that is, a type — not necessarily a biological category ) as a subtype of a genus satisfying certain conditions ( the differentia ).

It is the fourth smallest biological family in the Carnivora ( consisting of four species ), and one of the smallest in the mammalia.

Peter Raven, past President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ), states in the foreword to their publication AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment: " We have driven the rate of biological extinction, the permanent loss of species, up several hundred times beyond its historical levels, and are threatened with the loss of a majority of all species by the end of the 21st century.

It is the heaviest essential element utilized widely by life in biological functions ( only tungsten, employed in enzymes by a few species of bacteria, is heavier ).

He was the first to give a biological definition of the term species.

The greatest change was the widespread acceptance of evolution as the mechanism of biological diversity and species formation, following the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.

The term ' family ' comes from the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree or in a subsequent modification to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy.

However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed.

A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.

Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other species and / or natural phenomena that are more difficult to study directly.

While microscopy is a central tool in the documentation of biological specimens, it is, in general, insufficient to justify the description of a new species based on microscopic investigations alone.

As a tactical weapon for military use, a significant problem with a biological warfare attack is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force.

It has been argued that rational people would never use biological weapons offensively.

This early version of biological terrorism continued on into the 14th century where the bubonic plague was used to infiltrate enemy cities, both by instilling the fear of infection in residences, in hopes that they would evacuate, and also to destroy defending forces that would not yield to the attack.

Cecil Sharp had an influential idea about the process of folk variation: he felt that the competing variants of a traditional song would undergo a process akin to biological natural selection: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time.

Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend their three month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once out to sea they were told, " Your names will go down in history " and that the islands would become " famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California ".

However, far from seeing this as a problem for evolution, he described the " interlocking " of biological features as a consequence to be expected of evolution, which would lead to irreversibility of some evolutionary changes.

They considered women who engaged in sexual relations with other women to be biological oddities that would attempt to penetrate women — and sometimes men — with " monstrously enlarged " clitorises.

By 1978 Parr had realized that Density Functional Theory ( DFT ) would be extremely useful in quantitative calculations of chemical and biological systems, especially those with high molecular weights.

Pest synergy would occur in a biological host organism population, where, for example, the introduction of parasite A may cause 10 % fatalities, and parasite B may also cause 10 % loss.

For the same reason, BSE imaging can image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter, which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron images in biological specimens.

Counter to the reductionist argument would be a more biological theory ( and somewhat materialistic viewpoint ).

It would probably be prudent to mention: All processes — chemical, biological, measuring apparatus functioning, human perception involving the eye and brain, the communication of force — everything, is constrained by the speed of light.

Progress toward his plans for an Institute of Human Relations, envisioned as a refuge where social scientists would collaborate with biological scientists in a holistic study of humankind, unfortunately lasted for only a few years before the opposition of resentful anti-Semitic colleagues drove him to resign.

According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in human society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives ( chimpanzees and bonobo ), is the parental role assumed by the males, which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable.

From a Darwinian perspective dreams would have to fulfill some kind of biological requirement or provide some benefit for natural selection to take place.

For states eligible for this assurance, the United States would not use nuclear weapons in response to a chemical or biological attack, but states that those responsible for such an attack would be held accountable and would face the prospect of a devastating conventional military response.

However, most practicing doctors would readily adapt their thoughts and treatments if it was proven that there was a biological cause to disease previously thought to be idiopathic.

A biological determinist would posit that such behaviours, and personality traits in general, are mediated primarily by biological factors, such as genetic makeup.

Today, the term in vitro is used to refer to any biological procedure that is performed outside the organism it would normally be occurring in, to distinguish it from an in vivo procedure, where the tissue remains inside the living organism within which it is normally found.

Their intelligence is measured against that of an average biological member of the Culture ; a so-called " 1. 0 value " drone would be considered the mental equal of a biological citizen, whereas lesser drones such as the menial service units of Orbitals are merely proto-sentient ( capable of limited reaction to unprogrammed events, but possessing no consciousness, and thus not considered citizens ; these take care of much of the menial work in the Culture ).