It was not until the murder of the third caliph, Uthman, in 657 CE that the Muslims in Medina invited Ali to become the fourth caliph, and he established his capital in Kufah, in present-day Iraq.

Nasr invited the caliph to come to his residence.

Before allowing him to return to Gondeshapur, the caliph invited him to convert to Islam but he declined, saying that he wanted to be with his fathers when he died.

Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq ( 809 – 873 ) was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph.

Christian scholar Hunayn ibn Ishaq ( 809 – 873 ) was placed in charge of the translation work by the caliph.

At last, Zayd ibn ‘ Ali, well known as a great scholar and a pious theologian, went to see the caliph to seek redress for the grievances of the Bani Hashim.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq's reputation as a scholar and translator, and his close relationship with Caliph al-Mutawakkil, led the caliph to name Hunayn as his personal physician, ending the exclusive use of physicians from the Bukhtishu family.

A mujaddid might be a caliph, a saint ( wali ), a prominent teacher, a scholar or some other kind of influential person.

This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest.

But he was also known as Saqr Quraish (" The Falcon of the Quraish "), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.

Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.

In 1169 Saladin was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he would seize power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, al -' Āḍid.

In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar.

Sunnis further argue that a caliph should ideally be chosen by election or community consensus.

For the next seven years, the Druze faced extreme persecution by the new caliph, al-Zahir, who wanted to eradicate the faith.

Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself " is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom ", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.

Islam was used to extend his authority by declaring jihad on the Mossi, reviving the trans-Saharan trade, and having the Abbasid " shadow " caliph in Cairo declare him as caliph of Sudan.

The constitution's 187 articles specify specific policies such as sharia law, a " unitary ruling system " headed by a caliph elected by Muslims, an economy based on the gold standard, public ownership of utilities, public transport, and energy resources, and Arabic as the " sole language of the State.

* 762 – Baghdad is founded by caliph Al-Mansur.

The Fatimids, under the nominal rule of caliph al-Musta ' li but actually controlled by vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah, had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuqs in 1073 ; they recaptured it in 1098 from the Artuqids, a smaller Turkish tribe associated with the Seljuqs, just before the arrival of the crusaders.

The second Sunni caliph Umar at one time prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they may be teased by males, so he required them to pray at home.

His father Baha ' Walad was descended from the first caliph Abu Bakr and was influenced by the ideas of Ahmad Ghazali, brother of the famous philosopher.

Mecca re-entered Islamic political history briefly when it was held by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, an early Muslim who opposed the Umayyad caliphs and again when the caliph Yazid I besieged Mecca in 683.

* 644 – Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim caliph, is assassinated by a Persian slave in Medina.

* 1009 – The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a Christian church in Jerusalem, is completely destroyed by the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who hacks the Church's foundations down to bedrock.

Acts sometimes attributed to Pope Sergius IV include measures to relieve famine in the city of Rome, the exemption of certain monasteries from episcopal rule, and a papal bull calling for Islam to be driven from the Holy Land after the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed in 1009 by the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

In 1163, the vizier to the Fatimid caliph al-Adid, Shawar, had been driven out of Egypt by rival Dirgham, a member of the powerful Banu Ruzzaik tribe.

Ibn al-Athir claims that the caliph chose him after being told by his advisers that " there is no one weaker or younger " than Saladin, and " not one of the emirs obeyed him or served him.

After several minor skirmishes and a stalemate in the siege that was initiated by the caliph, Saladin intended to find a way to withdraw from the siege without damage to his reputation while still keeping up some military pressure.

" Saladin stressed that all this would happen by the will of God and instead of asking for financial or military support from the caliph, he would capture and give the caliph the territories of Tikrit, Daquq, Khuzestan, Kish Island, and Oman.

It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph.

The quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al -' Abbas as-Saffah, who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the Battle of the Zab near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph.

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, " The name first appears in early Islāmic history in the dispute over ʿAlī ’ s leadership of the Muslim community after the murder of the third caliph, Hazrat ʿUthmān ' Affan ( 656 ).

In the period of the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma ' mun ( 813 – 833 ), the name Oghuz starts to appear in the works of Islamic writers.

Al-Mahdi, whose name means " Rightly-guided " or " Redeemer ", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed.

The first known bearer of the name was Al-Mansur, second Abbasid caliph and the founder of Baghdad.

" Another account of this prediction stated that the Imam was imprisoned by the caliph, and it was that act which provoked the Imam to foretell of his death .< ref name =" book88 ">"" Encyclopædia Iranica | Articles.

He held the title of caliph for 23 years, though he was a largely a ruler in name only.

A coin minted in the name of Muhammad II of Khwarezm | Muhammad II ( 1200-1220 ) of Khwarezm, citing caliph an-Nasir as nominal suzerain.

The name of Calafia was likely formed from the Arabic word khalifa ( religious state leader ) which is known as caliph in English and califa in Spanish.

After ʻAlī died of the plague 13 June 1036, his son became the eighth caliph under the throne name of al-Mustansir.

It was then that he adopted the name of Abdullah-Malik and the rank of " caliph.

The caliph, who had initially preferred the weak Buyids over the strong Seljuks despite the latter's Sunni orthodoxy, declared that Toghrül's name should be recited before the al-Malik al-Rahim in the Friday sermons.