In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.

A recent study argues that the force of Berkeley's criticisms has been overestimated ; that Leibniz's defense of infinitesimals is more firmly grounded than Berkeley's criticism thereof ; and that Leibniz's system for differential calculus was free of logical contradictions.

Following criticism, especially the arguments from Richard Kirwan who thought Hutton's ideas were atheistic and not logical, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory ( with slight additions ) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite.

But even this criticism was not unknown to the logical positivists: Otto Neurath compared science to a boat which we must rebuild on the open sea.

As a philosopher of science Ernst Mach was a major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of relativity.

The existence of Moses as well as the veracity of the Exodus story is disputed amongst archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture.

‪ File: Ernst Mach 01. jpg ‬‬| Ernst Mach ( 1838-1916 ): contributed the Mach number, studied shock waves and how airflow is disturbed at the speed of sound, influenced logical positivism, forerunner of Einstein ’ s relativity through his criticism of Newton ‬‬‬‬

Unlike myth, which is a means of explaining the natural world through means other than logical criticism, scientific tradition was inherited from Socrates, who proposed critical discussion, according to Popper.

As a philosopher of science, he was a major influence on logical positivism and through his criticism of Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's relativity.

As a result, from the 1940s-1960s critical emphasis moved away from positioning the Wake as a " revolution of the word " and towards readings that stressed its " internal logical coherence ", as " the avant-gardism of Finnegans Wake was put on hold deferred while the text was rerouted through the formalistic requirements of an American criticism inspired by New Critical dicta that demanded a poetic intelligibility, a formal logic of texts.

# An Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions, and a Defence of the Mathematicians Against the Objections of the Author of the Analyst ( published anonymously in 1736 ), in which he defended the logical foundation of Isaac Newton's calculus (" fluxions ") against the criticism of George Berkeley, author of The Analyst

A logical formulation of this criticism might go as follows:

By extension, handwaving is used in speculative fiction criticism to refer to a plot device ( e. g., a scientific discovery, a political development, or rules governing the behavior of a fictional creature ) that is left unexplained or sloppily explained because it is convenient to the story, with the implication that the writer is aware of the logical weakness but hopes the reader will not notice or will suspend disbelief.

Living as a guest in a family house Varanapally near Kayamkulam, Nānu, along with other students, was taught Sanskrit language and poetry, drama and literary criticism, and logical rhetoric.

Sherry argues that Berkeley's criticism of infinitesimal calculus consists of a logical criticism and a metaphysical criticism.

argue that the logical criticism is based in Berkeley's misunderstanding of Leibniz's procedures for manipulating infinitesimals ; and that the force of Berkeley's criticisms has been overestimated ; that Leibniz's defense of infinitesimals is more firmly grounded than Berkeley's criticism thereof ; and that Leibniz's system for differential calculus was free of logical contradictions.

Two years after this publication, Thomas Bayes published anonymously " An Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions, and a Defence of the Mathematicians Against the Objections of the Author of the Analyst " ( 1736 ), in which he defended the logical foundation of Isaac Newton's calculus against the criticism outlined in The Analyst.

Berkeley's logical criticism is answered in the framework of the Leibnizian calculus by pointing out that the term is not set equal to zero but rather merely rejected at the end of the calculation so as to arrive at the value for the differential quotient, as an application of Leibniz's transcendental law of homogeneity.

Another criticism of logical fatalism is that it assumes a timeless set of all propositions which exist without being proposed by anyone in particular.

Finally, in The Maltese Falcon among others, the clash between detective and police is carried to its logical conclusion: Sam Spade becomes the chief murder suspect.

But in ways more fundamental than specific political opinions they are still what they always were: passionate, sure without a shadow of doubt of whatever it is that they are sure of, capable of seeing black and white only and, therefore, committed to the logical extreme of whatever it is they are temporarily committed to.

In the area of private label competition, it is logical to expect a continuation of trends which have been under way during the first decade.

And it is thought by many who think about such things that Quasimodo is the logical culmination of a school that started with Monet, progressed through Kandinsky and the cubist Picasso, and blossomed just recently in Pollock and De Kooning.

It is absurd to speak of philosophy as a superior enterprise to sociology, since the former is a logical, rational discipline, where sociology is essentially descriptive and empirical.

In the new situation, philosophy is able to provide the social sciences with the same guidance that mathematics offers the physical sciences, a reservoir of logical relations that can be used in framing hypotheses having explanatory and predictive value.

Therefore, a broad concept of over-all submarine defense is needed for co-ordination of the Navy's efforts, for a logical presentation to the public, for industry's guidance, and as a basis for a program to the Congress.

As retinal images are conceded to be an integral function of the brain it seems logical to suppose that the nerves, between the inner brain and the eyes, carry the direct drive for cooperation from the various brain centers -- rather than to theorize on the transmission of an image which is already in required location.

The fact is incontestable: that liberal world of Unitarian Boston was narrow-minded, intellectually sterile, smug, afraid of the logical consequences of its own mild ventures into iconoclasm, and quite prepared to resort to hysterical repressions when its brittle foundations were threatened.

The worship service is the natural and logical time to receive new members into the Church.

that is, for any statement that is a logical consequence of there actually exists a deduction of the statement from.

There is certainly a case for saying that Crooked House ( 1949 ) and Ordeal by Innocence ( 1957 ), which are not Poirot novels at all but so easily could have been, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of Poirot himself within the Poirot sequence.

In propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement for expressions in logical proofs.

A logical conclusion to draw is that the Hermunduri extended over later Swabia and therefore the Alemanni originally derived from the Hermunduri!

When one turns from the dombocs introduction to the laws themselves, it is difficult to uncover any logical arrangement.

For example, an " anti-realist " who denies that other minds exist ( i. e., a solipsist ) is quite different from an " anti-realist " who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds ( i. e., a logical behaviorist ).

It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part.

A forest is a collection of trees that share a common global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration.

But Sapir had since become influenced by a current of logical positivism, such as that of Bertrand Russel and the early Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly through Ogden and Richards ' The Meaning of Meaning, from which he adopted the a view that natural language potentially obscures, rather than facilitates, the mind to perceive and describe the world as it really is.

During the 1920's the Abstractionists, the German Bauhaus group of industrial designers, and the new architects all had the dream of some well ordered utopia, or welfare state, in which their neat and logical constructions might find their proper place.

From the equilibrium sorption data which are available, it seems logical to expect that polyphosphate ions would be strongly sorbed on the surface of the dirt ( especially clay soils ) so as to give it a greatly increased negative charge.

The mystification of metaphysical systems does not imply the demise of philosophy, only the close of a philosophic age which demanded metaphysics to be rational and logical.

Certain features we have touched upon: philosophy as a logical, deductive system from which a social science methodology can be built up ; ;

He wrote: `` ( P. 211 ) the anti-trust laws were the answer of a society which unconsciously felt the need of great organizations, and at the same time had to deny them a place in the moral and logical ideology of the social structure.

At these lower speeds, ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP and Ethernet VLANs, which are optional in VDSL implementations.

A broadcast domain is a logical division of a computer network, in which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link layer.

A central processing unit ( CPU ), also referred to as a central processor unit, is the hardware within a computer system which carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input / output operations of the system.

Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit ( ALU ), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit ( CU ), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

The reason this is called " disjunctive syllogism " is that, first, it is a syllogism, a three-step argument, and second, it contains a logical disjunction, which simply means an " or " statement.

In the Inmon vision, the data warehouse is at the center of the " Corporate Information Factory " ( CIF ), which provides a logical framework for delivering business intelligence ( BI ) and business management capabilities.

One may also wish to talk about definable complex numbers: complex numbers which are uniquely defined by a logical formula.

However, Russell's theory analyses proper names into a logical structure which makes sense of this problem.

Thus, the only logical possibilities are to accept non-Euclidean geometry as physically real, or to reject the entire notion of physical tests of the axioms of geometry, which can then be imagined as a formal system without any intrinsic real-world meaning.

* Tarski's axioms: Alfred Tarski ( 1902 – 1983 ) and his students defined elementary Euclidean geometry as the geometry that can be expressed in first-order logic and does not depend on set theory for its logical basis, in contrast to Hilbert's axioms, which involve point sets.

The core of the Propædia is its " Outline of Knowledge ", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge.

In this stratum we elaborate a " pure grammar " or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules " laws to prevent non-sense ", which would be similar to what logic calls today " formation rules ".

Husserl also talked about what he called " logic of truth " which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical third stratum.

Paradoxical versions of the Epimenides problem are closely related to a class of more difficult logical problems, including the liar paradox, Russell's paradox, and the Burali-Forti paradox, all of which have self-reference in common with Epimenides.