The Cirth (; " Runes ") are the letters of a semi-artificial script which was invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works.

Even closer to the tengwar is the Valmaric script, described in Parma Eldalamberon 14, which J. R. R. Tolkien used from about 1922 to 1925.

From the onset, Tolkien used comparative philology and the tree model as his major tools in his constructed languages.

When writing Common Eldarin forms, Tolkien often used the macron to indicate long vowels.

Tolkien writes that Smaug's rage was the kind which " is only seen when rich folk that have more than they can enjoy lose something they have long had but never before used or wanted.

Based on this, J. R. R. Tolkien in his fiction used the Old English form warg ( other O. E.

Tolkien used an archaic English word stor or stoor " strong ".

Tolkien, is that the poem is an elegy on a terrible loss and that the monastic author pinpoints the cause of the defeat in the commander's sin of pride, a viewpoint bolstered by the fact that ofermōd is, in every other attested instance, used to describe Satan's pride.

Tolkien intended the name Gondor to represent a sample of Sindarin, an Elven language devised by him, and within the books used by the Dúnedain for nomenclature.

Tolkien originally used it as a nickname for a man living in Lamorna Cove, England before adapting it into his stories:

Tolkien used Dwarves, instead, which corresponds with Elf and Elves.

Tolkien took the names of twelve of the thirteen dwarves he used in The Hobbit ( and Gandalf's name as well ) from Völuspá.

Tolkien also used Rohanese occasionally in his letters )

Fëanor is among those major characters whom Tolkien, who also used to illustrate his writings, supplied with a distinct heraldic device.

In the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, the fictional Sindar ( meaning Grey People, singular Sinda, although the latter term was not generally used by Tolkien ) are Elves of Telerin descent.

Besides dragon ( derived from French ), Tolkien variously used the terms drake ( the original English term, from Old English draca, in turn from Latin draco ) and worm ( from Old English wyrm, " serpent ", " dragon ").

Depending on the choice of conversion factors ( among many that Tolkien used at different times ), this translates to a period anywhere from 4, 902 to 65, 390 solar years.

Regarding the references to " Delling's door " as used in Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, Christopher Tolkien says that:

Tolkien used an image of an immature Golden Eagle from T. A. Coward's 1919 work The Birds of the British Isles and Their Eggs for an illustration depicting Bilbo awaking next to Gwaihir ( a giant eagle ).

Though the name has historically been modernized Shava ( and Latinized Scefius ), J. R. R. Tolkien used the modern spelling Sheave.

Tolkien describes the language as being created by Sauron as an artificial language to be the sole language of all the servants of Mordor, thereby replacing the many different varieties of Orkish and other languages used by his servants.

Tolkien describes the language as existing in two forms, the ancient " pure " forms used by Sauron himself, the Nazgûl, and the Olog-hai, and the more " debased " form used by the soldiery of the Barad-dûr at the end of the Third Age.

The sarati, described in Parma Eldalamberon 13, a script developed by J. R. R. Tolkien in the late 1910s, anticipates many features of the tengwar, especially the vowel representation by diacritics ( which is found in many tengwar varieties ), different tengwar shapes and a few correspondences between sound features and letter shape features ( though inconsistent ).

The Mellonath Daeron Index of Tengwar Specimina ( DTS ) lists 74 known samples of tengwar by Tolkien.

There is an inscription in tengwar on the title pages of each volume of The History of Middle-earth, written by Christopher Tolkien and describing the contents of the book.

However, Tolkien sometimes called the writing system “ The Tengwar of Rúmil ", where the word " tengwar " means letters in Quenya.

Clearly, Tolkien knew when firearms were invented, but he deliberately set out to write a lighthearted fantasy tale disregarding any consideration of historical accuracy.

Tolkien, who would later go on to write his novels, such as The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, with their influence taken from the same mythological scenes portrayed by the Pre-Raphaelites.

Unlike Elvish, Tolkien did not write songs or poems in the Black Speech, apart from the One Ring inscription.

Later, however, Tolkien would write that these names were given in their own language with unknown significance.

In 1936 J. R. R. Tolkien submitted The Hobbit for publication, and Unwin paid his ten-year-old son Rayner Unwin a few pence to write a report on the manuscript.

Tolkien is also responsible for reviving the older and less-used terms elven and elvish rather than Edmund Spenser's invented elfin and elfish ( when editors corrected the term to the latter, Tolkien himself was quick to write a correction into the next printing ).

Jacob Grimm in his Deutsches Wörterbuch deplored the " unhochdeutsch " form Elf, borrowed " unthinkingly " from the English, and Tolkien was inspired by Grimm to recommend reviving the genuinely German form in his Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings ( 1967 ) and Elb, Elben was consequently reintroduced in the 1972 German translation of The Lord of the Rings.

" Another joke puts a question concerning the definition of blunderbuss to " the four wise clerks of Oxenford " ( a reference to Chaucer's Clerk ; Tolkien had worked for Henry Bradley, one of the four main editors of the Oxford English Dictionary ):

J. R. R. Tolkien, in the legendarium surrounding his Elves, uses " Gnomes " as a name of the Noldor, the most gifted and technologically minded of his elvish races, in conscious exploitation of the similarity with gnomic ; Gnomes is thus Tolkien's English loan-translation of Quenya Noldor, " those with knowledge ".

The book, featuring a text in Middle English with extensive scholarly notes, is frequently confused with the translation into Modern English that Tolkien prepared, along with translations of Pearl and Sir Orfeo, late in his life.

* The following samples presumably predate the Lord of the Rings, but they were not explicitly dated: DTS 16, DTS 17, DTS 18 – Elvish Script Sample I, II, III, with parts of the English poems Errantry and Bombadil, first published in the Silmarillion Calendar 1978, later in Pictures by J. R. R. Tolkien, as well as DTS 23 – So Lúthien, a page of the English Lay of Leithan text facsimiled in The Lays of Beleriand: 299.

* January 21 – Edith Bratt, English wife of John Ronald Reuel Tolkien ( d. 1971 )

J. R. R. Tolkien is one of many scholars who have studied and promoted the Mercian dialect of Old English, and introduced various Mercian terms into his legendarium – especially in relation to the Kingdom of Rohan, otherwise known as the Mark ( a name cognate with Mercia ).

Tolkien was then already familiar with Latin, Greek, Spanish, and several ancient Germanic languages, Gothic, Old Norse and Old English.

But the decision to use Old Norse names came to have far-reaching consequences in the composition of The Lord of the Rings ; in 1942, Tolkien decided that the work was to be a purported translation from the fictional language of Westron, and in the English translation Old Norse names were taken to represent names in the language of Dale.

Language invention had always been tightly connected to the mythology that Tolkien developed, as he found that a language could not be complete without the history of the people who spoke it, just as these people could never be fully realistic if imagined only through the English language and as speaking English.

Tolkien created the name from the archaic meanings of English words " fallow " and " hide ", meaning " pale skin ".

* The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son is the title of a work by J. R. R. Tolkien that was originally published in 1953 in volume 6 of the scholarly journal Essays and Studies by Members of the English Association.

In his role as " translator " of the Red Book of Westmarch, Tolkien devised a strict English translation, Samwís Gamwich, which develops into Samwise Gammidgy and eventually comes to Samwise Gamgee in modern English.

The courage displayed by Samwise Gamgee on his journey with Frodo, his subjection to dangers and the preparedness to die out of loyalty for Frodo is the kind of spirit that was praised by Tolkien in a number of essays on the Old English poem " The Battle of Maldon ".

After publication of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien traced the origin of the name back to Gamgee and eventually the earlier English surname ' de Gamaches '.

" Edoras " is Old English for " enclosures ", which Tolkien held to be a translation of an unknown Rohirric name of the same meaning.

The names and many details of their culture are in fact based on Germanic-derived cultures, particularly that of the Anglo-Saxons and their Old English language, towards which Tolkien felt a strong affinity.