Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid ( DNA / RNA ) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions.

Together with proteins, nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecules ; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information.

Experimental studies of nucleic acids constitute a major part of modern biological and medical research, and form a foundation for genome and forensic science, as well as the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.

The basic component of biological nucleic acids is the nucleotide, each of which contains a pentose sugar ( ribose or deoxyribose ), a phosphate group, and a nucleobase.

Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells.

The primary structure of a biological polymer to a large extent determines the three-dimensional shape known as the tertiary structure, but nucleic acid and protein folding are so complex that knowing the primary structure often doesn't help either to deduce the shape or to predict localized secondary structure, such as the formation of loops or helices.

Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function.

The method also revealed the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins, drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA.

Since that success, over 73761 X-ray crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules have been determined.

The Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) is a repository for the 3-D structural data of large biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.

In biomedicine and biotechnology, sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers, are called biosensors.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1910 for his work in determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids, the genetic substance of biological cells.

Similar concepts apply at the molecular level — some nucleic acid sequences in eukaryotic genomes have no known biological function ; some of them may be " junk DNA ", but it is a difficult matter to demonstrate that a particular sequence in a particular region of a given genome is truly nonfunctional.

The folding of polypeptide chains into proteins and the folding of nucleic acids into their functional forms are examples of self-assembled biological structures.

DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular life.

Indeed, Mg < sup > 2 +</ sup >- dependent enzymes appear in virtually every metabolic pathway: specific binding of Mg < sup > 2 +</ sup > to biological membranes is frequently observed, Mg < sup > 2 +</ sup > is also used as a signalling molecule, and much of nucleic acid biochemistry requires Mg < sup > 2 +</ sup >, including all reactions which require release of energy from ATP .< ref name =" Romani 2002 "> In nucleotides, the triple phosphate moiety of the compound is invariably stabilized by association with Mg < sup > 2 +</ sup > in all enzymic processes.

They include proteins ( including antibodies ), nucleic acids ( DNA, RNA or antisense oligonucleotides ) and living microorganisms like virus and bacteria where the virulence of viruses and bacteria is reduced by the process of attenuation, they can be used for therapeutic or in vivo diagnostic purposes, and are produced by means other than direct extraction from a native ( non-engineered ) biological source.

In a chain-like biological molecule, such as a protein or nucleic acid, a structural motif is a supersecondary structure, which appears also in a variety of other molecules.

* the sensitive biological element ( biological material ( e. g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc.

The idea that effect of drug in human body are mediated by specific interactions of the drug molecule with biological macromolecules, ( proteins or nucleic acids in most cases ) led scientists to the conclusion that individual chemicals are required for the biological activity of the drug.

Carbohydrates ( literally hydrates of carbon ) are chemical compounds, which together with proteins, lipids ( fats ), and nucleic acids ( RNA / DNA ), constitute the 4 principal biological macromolecules of which all life on Earth is composed.

Vigorous acid hydrolysis of metabolite 1, destroyed the biological activity of the compound and liberated two aryl amines.

At the beginning of the " genomic revolution ", the term bioinformatics was re-discovered to refer to the creation and maintenance of a database to store biological information such as nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences.

* Negative stain – suspensions containing nanoparticles or fine biological material ( such as viruses and bacteria ) are briefly mixed with a dilute solution of an electron-opaque solution such as ammonium molybdate, uranyl acetate ( or formate ), or phosphotungstic acid.

** Lactic acid fermentation, the biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic byproduct lactate

The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids, and is commonly used as a building-block of more structurally complex lipids.

Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight.

Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation, whereas peptide is generally reserved for a short amino acid oligomers often lacking a stable three-dimensional structure.

Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others, distinguished by the molecules ' ability to coagulate or flocculate under treatments with heat or acid.

Thus in strong alkali at high pH, it forms the dually charged full urate ion, but at biological pH or in the presence of carbonic acid or carbonate ions, it forms the singly charged hydrogen or acid urate ion as its pKa < sub > 1 </ sub > is lower than the pKa < sub > 1 </ sub > of carbonic acid.

When the biological significance of nicotinic acid was realized, it was thought appropriate to choose a name to dissociate it from nicotine, to avoid the perception that vitamins or niacin-rich food contains nicotine, or that cigarettes contain vitamins.

Chromic acid is not a preferred method if the glassware is to be used for the biological sciences, as chromate ions can implant themselves in the glass and produce anomalous results when it is subsequently used for cell cultures ; to which the ions are toxic.

These are primarily macronutrients such as nitrate, phosphate or silicic acid, whose availability is governed by the balance between the so-called biological pump and upwelling of deep, nutrient-rich waters.

Taurine is unusual among biological molecules in being a sulfonic acid, while the vast majority of biologically occurring acids contain the more weakly acidic carboxyl group.

* Willow water, using willow branches to grow roots of new cuttings-extracting biological rooting hormones indolebutyric acid and salicylic acid

The term " essential fatty acid " refers to fatty acids required for biological processes, and not those that only act as fuel.

: The biological effects of the ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are mediated by their mutual interactions, see Essential fatty acid interactions for detail.

Several chemical compounds with potential biological activities are found in sundews, including flavonoids ( kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin and hyperoside ), quinones ( plumbagin, hydroplumbagin glucoside and rossoliside ( 7 – methyl – hydrojuglone – 4 – glucoside )), and other constituents such as carotenoids, plant acids ( e. g. butyric acid, citric acid, formic acid, gallic acid, malic acid, propionic acid ), resin, tannins and ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ).

Antigenic molecules, normally being " large " biological polymers, usually present several surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies.

Starting in approximately the 1970s into the present day analytical chemistry has progressively become more inclusive of biological questions ( bioanalytical chemistry ), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules.

The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues and nanomaterials is an important and attractive approach in analytical science.

The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable and will react rapidly and non-specifically with most biological molecules.

Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules, which are known as polymers.

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids ( e. g., retinoids and steroids ).

The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.

* Chemical Biology seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function.

Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices ( for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules ).

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes.

In contrast, Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules.

These methods can be applied to proteins and other large biological molecules, and allow studies of the approach and interaction ( docking ) of potential drug molecules ( e. g. and ).

* Cell disruption is a method or process in cell biology for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.

Enzymes () are biological molecules that catalyze ( i. e., increase the rates of ) chemical reactions.

In addition, some household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions ( e. g., enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein or fat stains on clothes ; enzymes in meat tenderizers break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew ).

For this reason, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are thought to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation ( however, there does remain controversy about possible non-thermal biological damage from low frequency EM radiation, see below ).

If these molecules are biological molecules in DNA, this causes lasting damage.

At higher frequencies ( visible and beyond ), the effects of individual photons of the radiation begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually directly or indirectly to damage biological molecules.

Electron microscopes are used to observe a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals.