Here N < sub > x </ sub > is the number of x atoms per volume, λ the electron escape depth, θ the analyzer angle, T the transmission of the analyzer, I ( t ) the electron excitation flux at depth t, dΩ the solid angle, and δt is the thickness of the layer being probed.

To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the thermal conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In thermal conductivity k is defined as " the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time ( t ) through a thickness ( L ), in a direction normal to a surface of area ( A ), due to a temperature difference ( ΔT ) [...].

* t < sub > f </ sub > is the fin thickness ( m )

One characteristic feature of Pitman shorthand is that unvoiced and voiced pairs of sounds ( such as / p / and / b / or / t / and / d /) are represented by strokes which differ only in thickness ; the thin stroke representing ' light ' sounds such as / p / and / t /; the thick stroke representing ' heavy ' sounds such as / b / and / d /.

He was the first to use thickness of a stroke to indicate voicing ( voiced consonants such as and are written with heavier lines than unvoiced ones such as / p / and / t /), and consonants with similar place of articulation were orientated in similar directions, with straight lines for plosives and arcs for fricatives.

* The thickness of the sample t is measured in metres ( m ).

:-The capacitance of the interface, є < sub > r </ sub > є < sub > 0 </ sub >/ t, for a uniform dielectric of thickness t and permittivity є < sub > r </ sub >

where is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction, is stress in the longitudinal direction, p is internal gauge pressure, r is the inner radius of the sphere, and t is thickness of the cylinder wall.

where is hoop stress, or stress in the circumferential direction, is stress in the longitudinal direction, p is internal gauge pressure, r is the inner radius of the cylinder, and t is thickness of the cylinder wall.

The teeth of a gear are distributed on the circumference of the pitch circle so that the thickness of each tooth t and the space between two teeth are the same.

So it is customary to find the critical buckling load for various structures which are cylindrical in shape from pre-existing design curves where critical buckling load F < sub > cr </ sub > is plotted against the ratio R / t, where R is the radius and t is the thickness of the cylinder for various values of L / R, L the length of the cylinder.

To do this we model the material in between as being made up of an infinite number of slabs of thickness t. These slabs have no lateral variation in density, but each slab may have a different density than the one above or below it.

According to the Beer-Lambert law, when viewing through the coloured substance ( and thus ignoring reflection ), the proportion of light transmitted at a given wavelength, T, decreases exponentially with thickness t, T = e < sup >- at </ sup >, where a is the absorbance at that wavelength.

If the red absorbance is less than the green, then as the thickness t increases, so does the ratio of red to green transmitted light, which causes the apparent hue of the colour to switch from green to red.

The number of x-ray photons that are transmitted through a sample ( I < sub > t </ sub >) is equal to the number of x-ray photons shone on the sample ( I < sub > 0 </ sub >) multiplied by a decreasing exponential that depends of the type of atoms in the sample, the absorption coefficient, and the thickness of the sample.

where R is the induced retardation, C is the stress optic coefficient, t is the specimen thickness, σ < sub > 11 </ sub > is the first principal stress, and σ < sub > 22 </ sub > is the second principal stress.

* t is the radial thickness of the cylinder

* t is the wall thickness

: t is the thickness of the plate

Here Z < sub > 0 </ sub > is the impedance of free space, ε < sub > r </ sub > is the relative permittivity of substrate, w is the width of the strip, h is the thickness (" height ") of substrate, and t is the thickness of the strip metallization.

Mortar is poured between this bracing and the 4-inch blocks on edge to complete the wall thickness for radiation shielding.

if inner lid is too big, trim to fit, allowing room for thickness of glaze.

All framing in Hotei is one-inch mahogany which, in the dressed state you buy it, is about the 13/16-inch thickness specified in the drawings.

After the frames and transom are set up on the jig and temporarily braced, a piece of three-inch-wide mahogany ( only widths will be given since the 13/16-inch thickness is used throughout ) is butted between frames one and two below the line of the keelson.

Since the removal force is a function of coating thickness, a differential transformer pickup has been incorporated into the instrument to accurately measure film thickness.

If a wedge-shaped coating of increasing thickness is removed from a substrate by an instrument like the Hesiometer with a knife of constant rake angle, a number of removal mechanisms are often observed which depend upon the thickness of the coating.

If the force required to remove the coatings is plotted against film thickness, a graph as illustrated schematically in Fig. 5 may characteristically result.

Here, H is the coatings removal force measured parallel to the surface of the substrate and T is the film thickness.

Why should the `` practical adhesion '' of a coating as assessed by a knife method change, initially increasing rather rapidly and then decreasing stepwise to very low values as the knife is forced through a coating of increasing thickness??

Af is the force required to cut a coating of thickness T from the substrate.

From Fig. 6 the relationship between these parameters can readily be derived and the cutting force is Af where **yl is the shear strength of the coating and is a parameter of the coatings material, W is the width of the removed coating and T is its thickness.

If the cutting force, Af, is plotted against film thickness, a straight line should result passing through the origin and having slope Af.

This signifies that **yc, the rake angle, is no longer a constant to zero film thickness.

Because the rake angle Af at the tip of the knife is very much smaller ( or even negative ) when compared to the value of **yc for the major portion of the knife, a very rapid increase in cutting force with thickness will result.

This reduces to the relationship: Af, where Af is the intercept at zero thickness of the extrapolation of the slope indicated in eqn. ( 1 ), Af is the thickness of the coating equivalent to the rounding off of the knife tip, Af is a straight line first approximation of this roundness, and the other symbols are equivalent to those of eqn. ( 1 ).

The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the interference pattern of the spectra.

In addition, moment of inertia should not be confused with polar moment of inertia ( more specifically, polar moment of inertia of area ), which is a measure of an object's ability to resist torsion ( twisting ) only, although, mathematically, they are similar: if the solid for which the moment of inertia is being calculated has uniform thickness in the direction of the rotating axis, and also has uniform mass density, the difference between the two types of moments of inertia is a factor of mass per unit area.

Typically, K < sub > b </ sub > is not measured experimentally but rather is calculated from measurements of K < sub > a </ sub > and bilayer thickness, since the three parameters are related.

He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air.

As an application example, the steady-state space-charge-limited current across a piece of silicon with a charge carrier mobility of 1500 cm < sup > 2 </ sup >/ V-s, a dielectric constant of 11. 9, an area of 10 < sup >- 8 </ sup > cm < sup > 2 </ sup > and a thickness of 10 < sup >- 4 </ sup > cm can be calculated by an on line calculator as 126. 4mA at voltage 3V.

The LOS-thickness for a vehicle in a horizontal position can be calculated by a simple formula, applying the cosine rule: it is equal to the armour's normal thickness divided by the cosine of the armour's inclination from perpendicularity to the projectile's travel ( assumed to be in the horizontal plane ) or:

In the table below, figure height alone ( excluding base thickness ) is the feature from which approximate scale is calculated.

Using an iterative procedure ( least-squares minimization ) unknown optical constants and / or thickness parameters are varied, and and values are calculated using the Fresnel equations.

The calculated and values which match the experimental data best provide the optical constants and thickness parameters of the sample.

If there are multiple layers of soil or water above the point of interest, the vertical stress may be calculated by summing the product of the unit weight and thickness of all of the overlying layers.

Knowing that the oil, oleic acid, had spread evenly through water, then Lord Rayleigh calculated that the thickness of the film was 1. 6nm by knowing the volume of oil dropped and the area of coverage.

The energy is mostly deposited within about one X-ray optical thickness of the tamper / pusher outer surface, and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated.

Linvill calculated the length, width, and thickness of a bimorph reed necessary for a resonance frequency of 200 Hz that could produce enough mechanical energy to stimulate a fingertip above the threshold of the sense of touch.