Andrew Johnson appointed nine Article III federal judges during his presidency, all to United States district courts.

Article III of the Constitution specifies that Associate Justices, and all other United States federal judges " shall hold their Offices during good Behavior.

To consider but one example, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution states " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof "— but interpretation ( that is, determining the fine boundaries, and resolving the tension between the " establishment " and " free exercise " clauses ) of each of the important terms was delegated by Article III of the Constitution to the judicial branch, so that the current legal boundaries of the Constitutional text can only be determined by consulting the common law.

In the United States, the power of the federal judiciary to review and invalidate unconstitutional acts of the federal executive branch is stated in the constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: " The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.

Later cases interpreted the " judicial power " of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution.

Since the 12th century, courts have had parallel and co-equal authority to make law -- " legislating from the bench " is a traditional and essential function of courts, which was carried over into the U. S. system as an essential component of the " judicial power " specified by Article III of the U. S. constitution.

Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II ( Article 19 ) set up the Commission and the Court, Sections III ( Articles 20 to 37 ) and IV ( Articles 38 to 59 ) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the Commission and the Court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions.

Crain asserts that he " is not subject to the jurisdiction, taxation, nor regulation of the state ," that the " Internal Revenue Service, Incorporated " lacks authority to exercise the judicial power of the United States, that the Tax Court is unconstitutionally attempting to exercise Article III powers, and that jurisdiction over his person has never been affirmatively proven.

:: Example 1 ( parliamentary monarchy ): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:

" Its primary functions in this area, according to Article III, are to encourage research and development, to secure or provide materials, services, equipment and facilities for Member States, to foster exchange of scientific and technical information and training.

" To do this, the IAEA is authorized in Article III. A. 5 of the Statute " to establish and administer safeguards designed to ensure that special fissionable and other materials, services, equipment, facilities, and information made available by the Agency or at its request or under its supervision or control are not used in such a way as to further any military purpose ; and to apply safeguards, at the request of the parties, to any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or at the request of a State, to any of that State's activities in the field of atomic energy.

Article III of the Constitution states that judges remain in office " during good behavior ", implying that Congress may remove a judge for bad behavior via impeachment and conviction.

Marbury v. Madison,, was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court formed the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution.

Nonetheless, the Court stopped short of compelling Madison ( by writ of mandamus ) to hand over Marbury's commission, instead holding that the provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that enabled Marbury to bring his claim to the Supreme Court was itself unconstitutional, since it purported to extend the Court's original jurisdiction beyond that which Article III established.

* Does Article III of the Constitution create a " floor " for original jurisdiction, which Congress can add to, or does it create an exhaustive list that Congress can't modify at all?

Marshall then looked to Article III of the Constitution, which defines the Supreme Court's original and appellate jurisdictions ( see Relevant Law above ).

Furthermore, it has been argued that the Supreme Court should have been able to issue the writ on original jurisdiction based on the fact that Article III of the Constitution granted it the right to review on original jurisdiction " all cases affecting … public ministers and consuls ," and that James Madison, Secretary of State at the time and defendant of the suit, should have fallen into that category of a " public minister consul.

The move raised tensions with the Soviets, who responded that Germany was supposed to have consulted with the Soviet Union under Article III of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact.

" The Supreme Court holds " The judicial Power " according to Article III, and it established the implication of Judicial review in Marbury vs Madison.

Under this provision, the Congress may create inferior courts under both Article III, Section 1, and Article I, Section 8.

The Article III courts, which are also known as " constitutional courts ", were first created by the Judiciary Act of 1789.

Article III courts are the only ones with judicial power, and so decisions of regulatory agencies remain subject to review by Article III courts.

This is provided for in Article II of the Constitution, which states that the President " shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Judges of the supreme Court.

The Constitution of Brazil knows also two elements of direct democracy, stated in Article 14.

Article 17 of the Constitution of France gives the President the authority to pardon criminals and, since 1991, the President has pardoned many petty offenders ( mainly traffic offences ) on 14 July.

( The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution.

In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution.

In May 2010, the Washington State Supreme Court provided an opinion after it was asked to certify a question referred by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Washington: “ Whether a public library, consistent with Article I, § 5 of the Washington Constitution, may filter Internet access for all patrons without disabling Web sites containing constitutionally-protected speech upon the request of an adult library patron .” The Washington State Supreme Court ruled that NCRL ’ s internet filtering policy did not violate Article I, Section 5 of the Washington State Constitution.

For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution ( Section 2, Clause 1 ) states that " the judicial Power shall extend ... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ".

A partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 ( 2 ) of the Constitution of India.

The Constitution of Japan states in Article 39 that

Article 13 of the Constitution of Pakistan protects a person from being punished or prosecuted more than once for the same offence.

Article 2 of the 1889 Meiji Constitution ( the Constitution of the Empire of Japan ) stated, " The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U. S. occupation administration and still in force, provides that " The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet.

Under clause 17 Article I Section 8 of the Constitution however, Congress has power to " exercise exclusive Legislation in all cases whatsoever " over the federal district ( Washington, D. C .) and other territory ceded to the federal government by the states, such as for military installations.

" The Volkskammer decides on the accession of the GDR to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany according to Article 23 of the Basic Laws effective as of October 3, 1990.

In accordance with Article 31 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong has Special Administrative Region status, which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of " one country, two systems ".

:: Example 2 ( parliamentary non-executive monarchy ): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:

:: Example 3 ( parliamentary republic ): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:

The definition of the term disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV, which gives a list of operations which are understood as disposal or recovery.

According to historian Thomas Woods, " Ever since the Korean War, Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution — which refers to the president as the ' Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States ' — has been interpreted to mean that the president may act with an essentially free hand in foreign affairs, or at the very least that he may send men into battle without consulting Congress.

Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 refers to a " Chief Justice " when it states " When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside.

" The Chief Justice is the only member of the Court to whom the Constitution refers as a " Justice ," and only in Article I.

The United States has made reservations that none of the articles should restrict the right of free speech and association ; that the US government may impose capital punishment on any person other than a pregnant woman, including persons below the age of 18 ; that " cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment " refers to those treatments or punishments prohibited by the Fifth, Eighth and / or Fourteenth Amendments to the US Constitution ; that Paragraph 1, Article 15 will not apply ; and that, notwithstanding paragraphs 2 ( b ) and 3 of Article 10 and paragraph 4 of Article 14, the US government may treat juveniles as adults, and accept volunteers to the military prior to the age of 18.

Since many treaties are signed while the use ( or threat ) of force is in effect, most scholars agree that Article 52 refers only to force that is in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations.

The Constitution refers to these officials when it authorizes the President, in Article II, section 2, to " require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices.

The Malaysian Chinese and Indian-Malaysians-who are significant ethnic minorities in Malaysia-were granted citizenship by the Malaysian Constitution but this implied a social contract that left them at a disadvantage in other ways, as Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia refers to the special " position " of the Malay people,

Article 86 refers first of all to “ undertakings ”, which has been defined to restrict the scope of competition law ’ s application.

The Attorney General advises the Government on the constitutionality of bills and treaties, and presents the Government's case if the President refers any bill to the Supreme Court under Article 26 of the Constitution before signing it.

Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution refers to the CPSU as the " leading and guiding force of Soviet society, and the nucleus of its political system, of all state organizations and public organizations ".

In accordance with Article 6 of the Act on linguistic arrangements in educational matters promulgated on 30 July 1963 and Article 3 of the Royal Decree of 14 March 1960 ( implementing Article 4 of the law of 29 May 1959 to which it refers ): nursery & primary education may be organised in another national language than the official language of the linguistic area under the condition that:

: ii ) Article 1 ( iv ) obviously refers to the Kashmir region when it talks of “ the basic issues and causes of the conflict which have bedeviled the relations between the two countries for the last thirty years .”

" The reference to " Article 251 " refers to co-decision, which meant the European Parliament had to be involved.

According to historian Thomas Woods, " Ever since the Korean War, Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution — which refers to the president as the ' Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States ' — has been interpreted to mean that the president may act with an essentially free hand in foreign affairs, or at the very least that he may send men into battle without consulting Congress.

* Article on Cornish Wrestling which refers to James Polkinghorne

Due to the 1875 and 1891 court decisions establishing basic definition, in the first version ( 1892 ) of the Pledge of Allegiance, which included the word republic, and like Article IV which refers to a Republican form of government, the basic definition of republic is implied and continues to do so in all subsequent versions, including the present edition, by virtue of its consistent inclusion.

Article 38. 1 ( b ) of the ICJ Statute refers to " international custom " as a source of international law, specifically emphasizing the two requirements of state practice plus acceptance of the practice as obligatory or opinio juris sive necessitatis ( usually abbreviated as opinio juris ).

The scope of general principles of law, to which Article 38 ( 1 ) of the Statute of the ICJ refers, is unclear and controversial but may include such legal principles that are common to a large number of systems of municipal law.

In the United Kingdom the Green Party refers to fluoride as a poison, claims that water fluoridation violates Article 35 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, is banned by the UK poisons act of 1972, violates Articles 3 and 8 of the Human Rights Act and raises issues under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.