Joseph Dietzgen ( 18281888 ) was a German socialist philosopher, Marxist and journalist.

A 2nd century CE Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer --- not to be confused with the 5th century BCE Greek philosopher Heraclitus --- claimed Euhemeristically that Cerberus had two pups which were never away from their father, as such Cerberus was in fact a normal ( however very large ) dog but artists incorporating the two pups into their work made it appear as if his two children were in fact extra heads.

Prefect Orestes enjoyed the political backing of Hypatia, an astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had considerable moral authority in the city of Alexandria, and who had extensive influence.

:" If I had stated ... the possibility of the introduction or origination of fresh species being a natural, in contradistinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the public on these mysterious subjects ".

He had already shown a strong inclination for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a " self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician ," as Sir Walter Scott called him, of great local fame — James Veitch of Inchbonny — a man who was particularly skillful in making telescopes.

Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values.

According to his letters, he was associated with the Venetian natural philosopher, Giulio Camillo, but, apart from this, he had a less active association with Italian scholars than might have been expected.

Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, a fine panegyric ; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit.

Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna.

Plato ( 427-347 BC ), the philosopher most esteemed by the Greeks, had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, " Let none ignorant of geometry enter here.

The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that books on magic were invented by the Persians, with the 1st century CE writer Pliny the Elder stating that magic had been first discovered by the ancient philosopher Zoroaster around the year 6347 BC, but that it was only written down in the 5th century BC by the magician Osthanes — his claims are not however supported by modern historians.

Similarly, it was commonly believed by Medieval people that other ancient figures like the poet Virgil, astronomer Ptolemy and philosopher Aristotle had been involved in magic, and grimoires claiming to have been written by them were circulated.

The philosopher and critic George Henry Lewes met Evans in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together.

Some contemporary texts still describe Ebbinghaus as a philosopher rather than a psychologist and he had also spent his life as a professor of philosophy.

The philosopher Thales ( 7th and 6 centuries BCE ), dubbed " the Father of Science " for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.

Pakudha Kaccayana, a 6th century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.

Portrait by Friedrich Engels. Johann Kaspar Schmidt ( October 25, 1806 – June 26, 1856 ), better known as Max Stirner ( the nom de plume he adopted from a schoolyard nickname he had acquired as a child because of his high brow, in German ' Stirn '), was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism.

The name was taken from writings of egoist philosopher Max Stirner, who had greatly influenced the young Brand, and refers to Stirner's concept of " self-ownership " of the individual.

The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism.

An early criticism by philosopher Ned Block argued that Jaynes had confused the emergence of consciousness with the emergence of the concept of consciousness.

Bedi was one of three children born into a family that had devoted itself to India's fight for independence from British colonial rule. His father, Baba Pyare Lal Bedi, a Punjabi Sikh, was an author and philosopher.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty () ( 14 March 1908 – 3 May 1961 ) was a French phenomenological philosopher, strongly influenced by Karl Marx, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger in addition to being closely associated with Jean-Paul Sartre ( who later stated he had been " converted " to Marxism by Merleau-Ponty ) and Simone de Beauvoir.

More recently, philosopher and psychologist James Giles has argued that human sexual desire is neither a biological instinct nor something learned or constructed by culture.

According to Cicero, the Roman philosopher who was writing in the first century BC, Posidonius constructed a planetary model.

Ian Hacking, Canadian philosopher of science, insists, " the notion that everything is socially constructed has been going the rounds.

As the Wittgensteinian philosopher Gavin Kitching argues, however, constructivists usually implicitly presuppose a deterministic view of language which severely constrains the minds and use of words by members of societies: they are not just " constructed " by language on this view, but are literally " determined " by it.

Again the student of evolutionary biology will find a fascinating, if to our minds grotesque, anticipation of the theory of chance variations and the natural elimination of the unfit in Lucretius, who in turn seems to have borrowed the concept from the philosopher Empedocles.

This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism.

Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection ( bundle ) of properties, relations or tropes.

With the work of the latter philosopher, critical theory transcended its theoretic roots in German idealism, and progressed closer to American pragmatism.

In the sixteenth century the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun ( heliocentrism ), put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets.

In the 12th century CE the Andalusian Muslim philosopher and novelist Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail ( known as " Abubacer " or " Ebn Tophail " in the West ) included the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment in his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child " from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society " on a desert island, through experience alone.

French philosopher Henri Bergson's Matter and Memory ( 1896 ) has been cited as anticipating the development of film theory during the birth of cinema.

The US philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce praised Cantor's set theory, and, following public lectures delivered by Cantor at the first International Congress of Mathematicians, held in Zurich in 1897, Hurwitz and Hadamard also both expressed their admiration.

The market anarchist Molinari Institute, headed by philosopher Roderick Long, is named after Molinari, who it calls the " originator of the theory of Market Anarchism.

Herbert Marcuse (; July 19, 1898 – July 29, 1979 ) was a German Jewish philosopher, sociologist and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory.

Following the French committee's findings, in his Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind ( 1818 ), Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the " Scottish School of Common Sense ", encouraged physicians to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of " animal magnetism " with a new interpretation based upon " common sense " laws of physiology and psychology.

Proponents include Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, an Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism, later referred to as " subjective idealism ", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as " matter ", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence-esse est percipi ; " to be is to be perceived ".

Johann Fichte was the first German philosopher to make an attempt at a presuppositionless theory of knowledge, wherein nothing outside of thought is assumed to exist apart from the primordial analysis of the Ego.

" The philosopher Immanuel Kant formulated one influential deontological theory of law.

This view which can be seen as a view of language going back to Kant and Descartes often understands language to be largely innate, for example as in Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar or American philosopher Jerry Fodor ’ s extreme innatist theory.

British political philosopher John Gray has characterized Dawkins ' memetic theory of religion as " nonsense " and " not even a theory ... the latest in a succession of ill-judged Darwinian metaphors ", comparable to Intelligent Design in its value as a science.

Maximilian Karl Emil " Max " Weber (; 21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920 ) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself.

As a philosopher of science Ernst Mach was a major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of relativity.

Herbert Marshall McLuhan, CC ( July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980 ) was a Canadian philosopher of communication theory.

Another stimulus was the publication in 1991 of Consciousness Explained by Tufts University philosopher Daniel Dennett, which incorporated the meme concept into a theory of the mind.