The Wittgensteinian philosopher Peter Winch discussed the paradox in The Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy ( 1958 ), where he argued that the paradox showed that " the actual process of drawing an inference, which is after all at the heart of logic, is something which cannot be represented as a logical formula ... Learning to infer is not just a matter of being taught about explicit logical relations between propositions ; it is learning to do something " ( p. 57 ).

McDowell argued, against this Dummettian view and its development by such contemporaries as Crispin Wright, both that this claim did not, as Dummett supposed, represent a Wittgensteinian requirement on a theory of meaning and that it rested on a suspect asymmetry between the evidence for the expressions of mind in the speech of others and the thoughts so expressed.

Using first-hand remarks ( which would later be published in Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value, and other works ), philosophers such as Peter Winch and Norman Malcolm developed what has come to be known as contemplative philosophy, a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the " Swansea tradition " and which includes Wittgensteinians such as Rush Rhees, Peter Winch and D. Z. Phillips, among others.

He took Wittgensteinian philosophy into areas of ethics and religion, which Wittgenstein himself had relatively neglected, sometimes showing considerable originality.

" This interpretation was first labeled, " Wittgensteinian Fideism ," by Kai Nielsen but those who consider themselves Wittgensteinians in the Swansea tradition have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as caricature of Wittgenstein's considered position ; this is especially true of D. Z. Phillips.

Other reactions to natural theology are those of Wittgensteinian philosophers of religion, most notably D. Z. Phillips.

In these early exchanges and in the parallel debate over the proper understanding of Wittgenstein's remarks on rule-following, some of McDowell's characteristic intellectual stances were formed: to borrow a Wittgensteinian expression, the defence of a realism without empiricism, an emphasis on the human limits of our aspiration to objectivity, the idea that meaning and mind can be directly manifested in the action, particularly linguistic action, of other people, and a distinctive disjunctive theory of perceptual experience.

There is another reason to hold Kripke has overstated the central nature of what he calls “ The Wittgensteinian Paradox ” to Philosophical Investigations.

In a general sense Hanson continues the application of the Wittgensteinian approach to the philosophy of science, as Waissman and Toulmin have also done.

Dewi Zephaniah Phillips ( 24 November 1934 – 25 July 2006 ), known as D. Z. Phillips, Dewi Z, or simply DZ, was a leading proponent of Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion.

He was editor of the journal Philosophical Investigations ( Blackwells ) and the Swansea Series in Philosophy ( Palgrave ), as well as the Claremont Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and Wittgensteinian Studies series.

Winch saw himself as an uncompromising Wittgensteinian.

( Hume 1974: 355-356 ) He also argues in brief against the idea that causes are mere occasions of the will of some god ( s ), a view associated with the philosopher Nicolas Malebranche.

American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail the existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God ( polytheism is a viable alternative ).

As a result, according to philosopher Steven Crowell, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better understood as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy in itself.

American philosopher Alvin Plantinga offers a free will defence which argues that human free will sufficiently explains the existence of evil while maintaining that God's existence remains logically possible.

The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.

In her essay " Sophistry about Conventions ," philosopher Martha Nussbaum argues that Stanley Fish's theoretical views are based on " extreme relativism and even radical subjectivism.

* Gottfried Leibniz argues in his essay On Nature Itself that refusing to acknowledge an active force in things and instead " simply to absorb this force into a command of God ’ s-a command given just once in the past, having no effect on things and leaving no traces of itself in them-is so far from making the matter easier to grasp that it is more like abandoning the role of the philosopher altogether and cutting the Gordian knot with a sword.

Vitzthum argues that Bancroft was the historian as artist and philosopher.

In the essay " A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs ", philosopher Donald Davidson argues that malapropisms demonstrate that competence in a language is not a matter of applying rigid rules to the decoding of utterances.

Chilean economist and philosopher Manfred Max-Neef has also argued fundamental human needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically universal and invariant in nature — part of the condition of being human ; poverty, he argues, may result from any one of these needs being frustrated, denied or unfulfilled.

Some argues that it was founded by the ruler of Venad Udaya Marttanda Varma ( a feudatory with capital at Kollam ) or by the Vedic philosopher Adi Shankara on the backdrop of the shivite revival among the vaishnavite Nambuthiri Community who are considered to be the ' Nampthali ' lost Tribe of the Jews or simply it is a derivation of the Saptarshi Era.

Another prominent position is that of philosopher Peter Singer, who argues that there are no grounds to include a being's species in considerations of whether their suffering is important in utilitarian moral considerations.

American Marxist philosopher Fredric Jameson argues that the condition of life and production will be reflected in all activity, including the making of art.

For instance, the religious philosopher Ninian Smart begins his Worldviews: Cross-cultural Explorations of Human Beliefs with " Exploring Religions and Analysing Worldviews " and argues for " the neutral, dispassionate study of different religious and secular systems — a process I call worldview analysis.

ISBN 3-902300-10-8, Austrian philosopher argues for Aldus Manutius ' authorship.

— The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon argues that fossils of marine organisms show that dry land was once under water.

Mario de Valdes y Cocom, a historian of the African diaspora, argues that the sloping arm of the chair also represents Monte le Verna, which Saint Bonaventure, a Christian Neo-Platonic philosopher, visited and was inspired to write his Itenerarium.

In his Poetics, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle argues that kinds of poetry ( the term includes drama, flute music, and lyre music for Aristotle ) may be differentiated in three ways: according to their medium, according to their objects, and according to their mode or manner ( section I ); " For the medium being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may imitate by narration — in which case he can either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged — or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us " ( section III ).

* Kuhnian: The philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn argues in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions with respect to the Copernican Revolution that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented.

He argues against the theory of Aristotle that the soul of man is his thought and that only the soul of the philosopher will be united, after the death of the body, with the active intellect.

In Book III of his Republic ( c. 373BC ), the ancient Greek philosopher Plato examines the " style " of " poetry " ( the term includes comedy, tragedy, epic and lyric poetry ): All types narrate events, he argues, but by differing means.

In his Poetics, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle argues that kinds of " poetry " ( the term includes drama, flute music, and lyre music for Aristotle ) may be differentiated in three ways: according to their medium, according to their objects, and according to their mode or " manner " ( section I ); " For the medium being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may imitate by narration — in which case he can either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged — or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us " ( section III ).

The philosopher Jacques Barzun argues that Romanticism had its roots in the Enlightenment.

Radio broadcasts, however -- now that even plain people could afford `` loud speakers '' on their sets -- held old fans to the major-league races and attracted new ones, chiefly women, who through what the philosopher called the ineluctable modality of audition, became first inured, then attracted, then addicted to the long afternoon recitals of the doings in some distant baseball park.

A 2nd century CE Greek known as Heraclitus the paradoxographer --- not to be confused with the 5th century BCE Greek philosopher Heraclitus --- claimed Euhemeristically that Cerberus had two pups which were never away from their father, as such Cerberus was in fact a normal ( however very large ) dog but artists incorporating the two pups into their work made it appear as if his two children were in fact extra heads.

It wasn ’ t until the late 1800s, however, that a young German philosopher by the name of Herman Ebbinghaus developed the first scientific approach to studying memory.

In first-order logic, however, the sentences can be expressed in a more parallel manner using the predicate Phil ( a ), which asserts that the object represented by a is a philosopher.

The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that books on magic were invented by the Persians, with the 1st century CE writer Pliny the Elder stating that magic had been first discovered by the ancient philosopher Zoroaster around the year 6347 BC, but that it was only written down in the 5th century BC by the magician Osthanes — his claims are not however supported by modern historians.

A later propensity theory was proposed by philosopher Karl Popper, who had only slight acquaintance with the writings of C. S. Peirce, however.

During the Renaissance, however, Thucydides attracted less interest among Western European historians as a political philosopher than his successor, Polybius, although Poggio Bracciolini claimed to have been influenced by him.

Kripke's position has, however recently been defended against these and other attacks by the Cambridge philosopher Martin Kusch ( 2006 ), and Wittgenstein scholar David G. Stern considers the book to be " the most influential and widely discussed " work on Wittgenstein since the 1980s.

The Taoist philosopher, Zhuangzi, once had a dream about being a butterfly that flew without care about humanity ; however ; when he awoke and realized that it was just a dream, he thought to himself, " Was I before a man who dreamt about being a butterfly, or am I now a butterfly who dreams about being a man?

The classical scholar Walter Burkert has speculated that the house of the goddess to which the philosopher is transported is the palace of Nyx ; this hypothesis, however, must remain tentative.

In the past few years, other unexpected voices are however beginning to question what they interpret, as the new philosopher Alain Finkielkraut coined the term, as an " Ideology of miscegenation " ( une idéologie du métissage ) that may come from what one other philosopher, Pascal Bruckner, defined as the " Sob of the White man " ( le sanglot de l ' homme blanc ).

The Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry, however, took an allegorical view of the Saturnalia.

Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom ; however, this relationship has been disputed.

It is as a philosopher and a man of science however that Scaliger meant to be judged.

The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by philosopher kings ; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in common ; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through noble lies ; the Republic says that such a city is likely impossible, however, not least because philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.

The form of the Saturnalia is copied from Plato's Symposium and Gellius's Noctes atticae ; the chief authorities ( whose names, however, are not quoted ) are Gellius, Seneca the philosopher, Plutarch ( Quaestiones conviviales ), Athenaeus and the commentaries of Servius and others on Virgil.

Inconsistency-tolerant logics have been discussed since at least 1910 ( and arguably much earlier, for example in the writings of Aristotle ); however, the term paraconsistent (" beside the consistent ") was not coined until 1976, by the Peruvian philosopher Francisco Miró Quesada.

The term " green liberalism " was coined, however, by political philosopher Marcel Wissenburg in-among others-his 1998 book Green Liberalism: The free and the green society.

He is most noted for career as an actor, however Lee was also a martial arts instructor, philosopher, film director, film producer, screenwriter, and founder of the Jeet Kune Do ( JKD ) martial arts movement.

As a clergyman, he expected to have ample opportunity to carry out his educational ideas, however the failure of his first sermon and influence from philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau led him to pursue a career in law and political justice.

Whether however he is the same as the academic philosopher mentioned by Athenaeus is still a matter of some debate.

Carter's position in the pantheon of eighteenth century women writers was, however, secured by her translation in 1758 of All the Works of Epictetus, Which are Now Extant, the first English translation of all known works by the Greek stoic philosopher.

German social philosopher Ernst Bloch wrote that utopias and images of fulfillment, however regressive they might be, also included an impetus for a radical social change.