By mutating aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, chemists have expanded the genetic codes of various organisms to include lab-synthesized amino acids with all kinds of useful properties: photoreactive, metal-chelating, xenon-chelating, crosslinking, color-changing, spin-resonant, fluorescent, biotinylated, and redox-active amino acids.

By changing specific amino acids by mutating the corresponding DNA base-pairs in the plasmids used, the importance of those amino acid residues in maintaining the interaction can be determined.

By altering the DNA or transferring DNA to an animal, we can develop certain proteins that may be used in medical treatment.

By combination of different α, β and γ subunits, a great variety (> 1000 ) G proteins can be produced.

By understanding the physical and chemical properties of proteins and other macromolecules at the atomic level in various cells in the kidney, novel therapeutic approaches can be designed to combat major renal diseases.

By contrast, in vivo experiments on proteins ' activities within cells or even within whole organisms can provide complementary information about where a protein functions and how it is regulated.

By changes in structure, specific proteins acquire the capability to enter the nucleus of the cell and bind to promoter DNA, or to other proteins that themselves are already bound to a given promoter.

By using different lanthanides MeCAT multiplexing can be used for pharmacokinetics of proteins and peptides or the analysis of the differential expression of proteins ( proteomics ) e. g. in biological fluids.

By contrast, Laccaria bicolor possesses expanded multigene families associated with hydrolysis of bacterial and microfauna polysaccharides and proteins.

By degrading these proteins, cancer cells are able to breach the ECM and escape.

By binding to the H3K27me2 / 3-tagged nucleosome, PRC1 ( also a complex of PcG family proteins ) catalyzes the mono-ubiquitinylation of histone H2A at lysine 119 ( H2AK119Ub1 ), blocking RNA polymerase II activity and resulting in transcriptional suppression.

By 1950, preliminary studies of proteins were progressing in the MRC unit.

By doing so, these regulatory proteins can recruit another protein complex, called the RNA polymerase.

By 1900, it was generally accepted that proteins were composed of amino acids ; however, whether proteins were colloids or macromolecules was still under debate.

By using a whole-genome approach to this traditional method of protein structure determination, all of the proteins encoded by the genome can be expressed at once.

By helping to stabilize partially unfolded proteins, HSPs aid in transporting proteins across membranes within the cell .< ref name =" pmid12491239 ">

By expressing variable amounts of red, green, and blue fluorescent proteins in the brain, the so-called " brainbow " mutant mouse allows the combinatorial visualization of many different colors in neurons.

: By including related proteins in the search, PSI-BLAST is much more sensitive in picking up distant evolutionary relationships than a standard protein-protein BLAST.

By contrast, global protein synthesis that occurs in the cell body requires that proteins be shipped out to every area of the cell, including synapses that have not received LTP-inducing stimuli.

By binding tightly to partially synthesized peptide sequences ( incomplete proteins ), Hsp70 prevents them from aggregating and being rendered nonfunctional.

By temporarily binding to hydrophobic residues exposed by stress, Hsp70 prevents these partially denatured proteins from aggregating, and allows them to refold.

By contrast, orthologous genes are ones which code for proteins with similar functions but exist in different species, and are created from a speciation event.

By using a reflective substrate such as silicon, light reflected from proteins will interfere with light reflected from the substrate.

By `` image '' is meant not only a visual presentation, but also remembered sensations of any of the five senses plus the feelings which are immediately conjoined therewith.

By virtue of his self-reliance, his individualism and his freedom from external restraint, the private eye is a perfect embodiment of the middle class conception of liberty, which amounts to doing what you please and let the devil take the hindmost.

By no means would we discourage the production of ideas: they provide raw materials with which to work ; ;

By distinguishing superlunary ( celestial ) and sublunary ( terrestrial ) existence, and reinforcing this with the four-element physics of Empedocles, Aristotle came to speak of the stars as perfect bodies, which moved in only a perfect way, viz. in a perfect circle.

By early June they were a hundred miles off the coast of Ceylon, by which time all four missionaries were hardened seafarers.

By late afternoon the train inched into the marshaling yards in the railhead at Lublin, which was filled with lines of cars poised to pour the tools of war to the Russian front.

By odd coincidence, on the evening of her return Shelley chose to read Parisina, which was the latest of the titled poet's successes.

By making inroads in the name of law enforcement into the protection which Congress has afforded to the marriage relationship, the Court today continues in the path charted by the recent decision in Wyatt v. United States, 362 U.S. 525, where the Court held that, under the circumstances of that case, a wife could be compelled to testify against her husband over her objection.

By combining the talents of a medical man, Dr. Aterman, a biophysicist, Mr. Berkely, and an electronics expert, Dr. Zworykin, this novel technique has been developed which promises to open broad avenues to understanding life processes.

By Theorem 10, D is a diagonalizable operator which we shall call the diagonalizable part of T.

By ( 1 ), the image of this pencil is a ruled surface of order Af which is met by the plane of the pencil in a curve, C, of order Af.

By the end of the spring of 1961, assuming that a general business recovery gets under way, interest rates should begin to edge upward again, depending upon the vigor of the recovery and the determination with which the monetary authorities move to restrain credit availability.

By the very nature of the situation, it is the union which has been able to select the time and place to bring pressure upon management.

By all means the most important distinction is that between those total-cost apportionments which superimpose a distribution of admittedly unallocable cost residues on estimates of incremental or marginal costs, and those other apportionments which recognize no difference between true cost allocation and mere total-cost distribution.

By the time Felix turned up it was early afternoon, which, one would think, would be late enough so that by then, except for small children and a few hardy souls who had not yet sobered up, it could have been expected that people would no longer be having any sort of active interest in the previous night's noisemakers and paper hats.

By way of explanation we ourselves are prone to imagine that this achievement stems from the same American Catholic zeal and generosity which brought the parochial school system into existence.

By the Brønsted-Lowry definition, any compound which can easily be deprotonated can be considered an acid.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the Naturalisation Act 1870, it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined.

By 1980 the infrequency of sightings of Mount Ararat, which looms about sixty kilometers across the Turkish border, became a symbol of worsening air pollution in Yerevan.

By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the Cluniac reforms, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community.

By studying these images, they can detect solar system objects by their movements relative to the background stars, which remain fixed.

By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius ' doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325.

By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nuclei are typically heavy metals which preferentially collect on the chromosomes.