By the 1870s, the Transcontinental Railroad reached its terminus in Oakland.

By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and many of the newly-created croquet clubs, including the All England club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts.

By the 1870s, Herbert Spencer and other classical liberals concluded that historical development was turning against them.

By the 1870s, the canal's goods traffic had dwindled to just three major types of bulk goods-forest products, coal and ore, none of which required rapid transportation.

By the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed.

By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education ( the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education ).

By the mid 1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

By the mid 1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

By the 1870s, efficient generators that produced alternating current ( alternators ) were available, and it was found that alternating current could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

By the 1870s, the firm was offering both designs for embroideries and finished works.

By the 1870s, McGonagall and his family were struggling.

By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D. C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company.

By the 1870s, breweries had become the largest users of commercial refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice.

By the 1870s the future king had taken a keen interest in horseracing and steeplechasing.

By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the constitution, and blacks were voting and taking political office.

By the 1870s J. C. Godeffroy und Sohn of Hamburg ( operating out of Samoa ) began to dominate the Tuvalu copra trade, which company was in 1879 taken over by Handels-und Plantagen-Gesellschaft der Südsee-Inseln zu Hamburg ( DHPG ).

By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well.

By the 1870s Echuca had risen to prominence as Australia's largest inland port.

By the end of the 1870s the stage was set for discontent among the aboriginal people of the prairies: the bison population was in serious decline ( creating enormous economic difficulties ) and, in an attempt to assert control over aboriginal settlement, the federal government often violated the terms of the treaties it had signed during the latter part of the decade.

By the late 1870s, white Democrats had regained their political power in the state legislature and passed measures to disfranchise the blacks, which essentially lasted until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.

By the late 1870s, hardship was experienced by everyone.

" By the early 1870s water diversions were being used to irrigate an extensive area of corn and other crops.

By the early 1870s, what was referred to as " North Arkansas College " ( not to be confused with the modern community college by the same name in Harrison, Arkansas ) was founded and students from all over the state attended.

By the late 1870s, Springville was large enough to warrant a post office, but there already existed a town called Springville, California ( now part of Camarillo, in Ventura County ) in the state of California.

By the Naturalisation Act 1870, it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined.

But By the Way was one of the few features kept continuously running in the often seriously reduced Daily Express throughout World War II, when Morton's lampooning of Hitler, including the British invention of bracerot to make the Nazi's trousers fall down at inopportune moments, was regarded as valuable for morale.

By 16: 00, Alexander and Swiftsure were also in sight, although some distance from the main British fleet, and Brueys gave orders to abandon the plan to remain at anchor and instead for his line to set sails, although Blanquet protested the order on the grounds that there were not enough men aboard the French ships to both sail the ships and man the guns.

By 18: 00, the British fleet was again under full sail, Vanguard sixth in the line of ten ships as Culloden trailed behind to the north, and Alexander and Swiftsure hastened to catch up to the west.

By 24: 00 only Tonnant remained engaged, as Commodore Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars continued his fight with Majestic and fired on Swiftsure when the British ship moved within range.

By contrast, the British press were jubilant ; many newspapers sought to portray the battle as a victory for Britain over anarchy, and the success was used to attack the supposedly pro-republican Whig politicians Charles James Fox and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.

By resigning Laws became the shortest serving Minister in modern British political history with less than 18 days service as a Cabinet Minister.

By the last years of the 19th century, The British Museum's collections had increased so much that the Museum building was no longer big enough for them.

By the mid-1950s the system was being used in at least sixty British libraries and in a hundred by the 1970s.

By 1888, over 3, 000 British public houses, grocers and chemists were selling Bovril.

By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles.

By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history.

By 1951 about 20 % of the British economy had been taken into public ownership.

By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

By comparison, the former colony of the United Province of Canada ( divided into the District of Canada East, and the District of Canada West ) and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the Hudson's Bay Company ; in particular the November 19, 1869 sale of Rupert's Land to the Government of Canada under the Rupert's Land Act 1868 was facilitated in part by Maritime taxpayers.

By the late 1970s, two and a half million British homes received their television service via cable.

By the end of the summer however, the plan had changed ; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja Shah.

By 1854 the British wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years.

By the time Sher Ali had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more.

By the end of October, Allen was again off New York, where the British, having secured the city, moved the prisoners on-shore, and, as he was considered an officer, gave Allen limited parole.

By 1949, the United States and British intelligence organizations were working with King Zog and the mountain men of his personal guard.

By the end of the week, British strength stood at over 16, 000 men.

By the end of the week, the British had taken some of the buildings in the Union, but others remained in rebel hands.

By the time British reinforcements arrived in the west, the rising there had already disintegrated.