By the 1870s, the Transcontinental Railroad reached its terminus in Oakland.

By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and many of the newly-created croquet clubs, including the All England club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts.

By the 1870s, Herbert Spencer and other classical liberals concluded that historical development was turning against them.

By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10 < sup >− 6 </ sup > atm.

By the 1870s, the canal's goods traffic had dwindled to just three major types of bulk goods-forest products, coal and ore, none of which required rapid transportation.

By the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed.

By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education ( the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education ).

By the mid 1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

By the mid 1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

By the 1870s, efficient generators that produced alternating current ( alternators ) were available, and it was found that alternating current could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

By the 1870s, McGonagall and his family were struggling.

By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D. C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company.

By the 1870s, breweries had become the largest users of commercial refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice.

By the 1870s the future king had taken a keen interest in horseracing and steeplechasing.

By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the constitution, and blacks were voting and taking political office.

By the 1870s J. C. Godeffroy und Sohn of Hamburg ( operating out of Samoa ) began to dominate the Tuvalu copra trade, which company was in 1879 taken over by Handels-und Plantagen-Gesellschaft der Südsee-Inseln zu Hamburg ( DHPG ).

By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well.

By the 1870s Echuca had risen to prominence as Australia's largest inland port.

By the end of the 1870s the stage was set for discontent among the aboriginal people of the prairies: the bison population was in serious decline ( creating enormous economic difficulties ) and, in an attempt to assert control over aboriginal settlement, the federal government often violated the terms of the treaties it had signed during the latter part of the decade.

By the late 1870s, white Democrats had regained their political power in the state legislature and passed measures to disfranchise the blacks, which essentially lasted until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.

By the late 1870s, hardship was experienced by everyone.

" By the early 1870s water diversions were being used to irrigate an extensive area of corn and other crops.

By the early 1870s, what was referred to as " North Arkansas College " ( not to be confused with the modern community college by the same name in Harrison, Arkansas ) was founded and students from all over the state attended.

By the late 1870s, Springville was large enough to warrant a post office, but there already existed a town called Springville, California ( now part of Camarillo, in Ventura County ) in the state of California.

By 1979 master plan development was handled by the firm of Sasaki & Associates, which continued to work alongside the university in the years that followed.

By Haitian standards, Magloire's rule was firm, but not harsh: he jailed political opponents, including Fignolé, and shut down their presses when their protests grew too strident, but he allowed labor unions to function, although they were not permitted to strike.

By 1980 the firm had operations in southern Africa, Australia, China, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, as well as the United States, and employed 37, 000 people.

By continuing production, the firm can offset its variable cost and at least part of its fixed cost, but by stopping completely it would lose the entirety of its fixed cost.

By not producing, the firm loses only its fixed cost.

By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.

By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control.

By shutting down a firm avoids all variable costs.

By the 1820s, the center of innovation had shifted to Paris, where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt.

By then, Clemente was on firm footing ; he never again dipped below. 319 and would finish the season at. 329, good for a second consecutive NL batting crown and his third in five years.

By 1905 the firm was manufacturing automobiles.

By 1990, Keck, Mahin & Cate, a law firm, considered moving out of its space in the Sears Tower and moving into a potential new development, which would become 77 West Wacker Drive.

By its very nature, conceptualizing a supply curve requires that the firm be a perfect competitor — that is, that the firm has no influence over the market price.

By 1979, many companies such as Cromemco, Processor Technology, IMSAI, Northstar, Southwest Technical Products Corporation, Ohio Scientific, Altos, Morrow Designs and others produced systems designed either for a resourceful end user or consulting firm to deliver business systems such as accounting, database management, and word processing to small businesses.

By the spring of 1536 Christian III had taken firm control.

By nightfall on 12 April 1917, the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.

By her firm administration she controlled the unruly nobles and checked numerous abuses ; but she damaged her reputation by excessive severity toward private enemies and the undue employment of menials for advisers, including her influential minister Leo Paraspondylos.

By 1971 the firm had established its Mergers & Acquisitions business along with Sales & Trading.

By autumn 1915 Asquith ’ s Coalition was close to breaking up over conscription, and in the absence of firm leadership ad hoc campaigns had developed in Sinai, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia and Salonika.

By April 1899, his firm, McCormick & French, had won third place in the design competition for the new Luzerne County Courthouse.

By 1840, James Taylor White, in cooperation with Jones & Co., an English firm, had built what was probably the first meat packing plant in Texas on the banks of the Trinity River in Liberty, marked also by Historical marker.

By 2006, research firm Marketdata estimated the " self-improvement " market in the U. S. as worth more than $ 9 billion — including infomercials, mail-order catalogs, holistic institutes, books, audio cassettes, motivation-speaker seminars, the personal coaching market, weight-loss and stress-management programs.