By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By simply denying that an efficient first cause is problematic, being easily explained as the creative action of an omnipotent God, medieval theologians re-purposed and enhanced Aristotle's argument, as if the intention had been to prove God's existence.

By contrast, homoerotic themes were present in poetry and other literature written by some Muslims from the medieval period onwards and which celebrated love between men.

By the end of the 19th century, it was confined mainly to Pre-Raphaelite imitators, and it could not avoid being affected by the First World War, which damaged the reputation of chivalry and thus interest in its medieval manifestations and Arthur as chivalric role model.

By that time too, the medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army as they were not designed for resisting cannon shot.

By 1600, the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for the spectators or as a source of building stone and a site for its use.

By the medieval Chinese dynasties, with the decline of chariot warfare, the use of the dagger-axe was almost nonexistent.

By the time of the medieval university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium — philosophy, including natural philosophy — and the quadrivium — mathematics, including astronomy.

By 1630, Africans had replaced the Tupani as the largest contingent of labor on Brazilian sugar plantations, heralding equally the final collapse of the European medieval household tradition of slavery, the rise of Brazil as the largest single destination for enslaved Africans and sugar as the reason that roughly 84 % of these Africans were shipped to the New World.

By late medieval reasoning, the city of Orléans had escalated the conflict and forced the use of violence upon the English, so a conquering lord would be just in exacting vengeance upon its citizens.

By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects.

By the mid-eighth century, shōen ( landed estates ), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, began to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding.

By 1400 there emerged an interest in humanitas which contrasted with the formalism of the medieval period, but initially this new interest in Roman antiquity was restricted to a few scholars, writers and philosophers ; it did not at first influence the visual arts.

By this point classicism was old enough that previous classical movements received revivals ; for example, the Renaissance was seen as a means to combine the organic medieval with the orderly classical.

By the medieval period, fuller's earth had been introduced for use in the process.

By the time of the Crusades in the late eleventh century, fulling mills were active throughout the medieval Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east.

By the middle of the century medieval ruined castles had become fashionable once again.

By contrast the artistic work of antiquarians James Bentham and James Essex at the end of the century, while stopping short of being genuine archaeology, was detailed and precise enough to provide a substantial base of architectural fine detail on medieval castle features and enabled the work of architects such as Wyatt.

" By the 12th century, the lodestone compass was being used for navigation in medieval China.

By the 8th century, " Albania " had been reduced to a strictly geographical and titular ecclesiastical connotation, and was referred to as such by medieval Armenian historians ; on its place sprang a number principalities, such as that of the Armenian principality and kingdom of Khachen, along with various Caucasian, Iranian and Arabic principalities: the principality of Shaddadids, the principality of Shirvan, the principality of Derbent.

By the early 19th century the fabric of the church had fallen into disrepair, All the medieval furnishings were gone, and the interior was as Francis Bumpus later described it, " pewed and galleried to a fearful extent ".

By the 16th century, before the Gregorian calendar reform, the medieval computus was out of sync with the actual seasons and the moon, and occasionally spring would have begun and a full moon passed a month before the computus put the first spring moon

By the later 19th century many book-illustrators and producers of decorative art of various kinds had learned to use medieval styles successfully from the new museums like the Victoria & Albert Museum set up for this purpose.

By the 11th century, hydropowered sawmills were in widespread use in the medieval Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east.

By what one reader called a `` series of dissolving views '', he merges one period into another and gives a sense of continuous growth.

By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam.

By the conditions accepted in the treaty, the Avars were to take possession of Pannonia and the Lombards were promised military support in Italy should the need arise ; also, for a period of 200 years the Lombards were to maintain the right to reclaim their former territories if the plan to conquer Italy failed, thus leaving Alboin with an alternative open.

By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets.

By the Roman period brass was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the cementation process and variations on this method continued until the mid 19th century.

B. Morton as authors of the Daily Express column " By the Way " in the period 1919 – 1975.

By contrast, the normal vaginal discharge will vary in consistency and amount throughout the menstrual cycle and is at its clearest at ovulation-about 2 weeks before the period starts.

By a strange twist, the Benedictines were not a mendicant order, but a stable, monastery-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period.

By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits, the designers can select an appropriate period for the clock signal.

By 1968, the design had reached the one known today, and has been used continuously from this year, apart from a period in the 1970s when the just the letters CAFC appeared on the team's shirts.

By the crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been the location that Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such ; although the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, there is no evidence for the rumour prior to the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to the 11th century repairs by Monomachos.

By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared.

She continued to make minor and frequently nostalgic period musicals such as Starlift, The West Point Story, On Moonlight Bay, By the Light of the Silvery Moon, and Tea For Two for Warner Brothers.

By the Roman period, however, the sacrifices were performed in the mid-afternoon.

By the Hellenic period, the Alexandrian school made elegy its favorite and most highly developed form.

By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held.

By the end of the Early Modern period however, and the beginnings of the Enlightenment, many European governments brought in laws prohibiting many superstitious beliefs in an attempt to bring an end to the Witch Hunt ; this would invariably affect the release of grimoires.

By the Anglo-Swedish alliance of 3 March 1813, it was ceded to Sweden for a brief period of 15 months.

By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mystery cults and ceremonies, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion.

By the end of the Saxon period, the port of Hastings had moved eastward near the present town centre in the Priory Stream valley, whose entrance was protected by the White Rock headland ( since demolished ).

By the baroque period, in Italy and Spain, more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes ; these were usually in a second line of strings.

By the Tudor period, the Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory initially lost to the colonists: even in the Pale, ‘ all the common folk … for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language ’.

By the end of this period his personal life was again in crisis.

By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.

Following his marriage Albéniz settled in Madrid and produced a quantity of music in a relatively short period. By 1886 he had written over 50 piano pieces.