* Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets

Economists have attempted to model the circumstances under which slavery ( and variants such as serfdom ) appear and disappear.

Economists have urged the use of " market-based " instruments such as emissions trading to address environmental problems instead of prescriptive " command and control " regulation.

* Economists and political scientists often associate the term with approaches using rational choice assumptions, especially game theory and social choice theory, in explaining phenomena beyond economics ' standard remit, such as corruption, government failure and complex decision-making in which context the term " positive political economy " is common.

Economists such as Milton Friedman and Dr. Ravi Batra have theorized ways that a modern economy could have low inflation and near full employment ( as in close to 100 % of those who are not students and are healthy enough to work, and who wish to work at any given point in time ), as of yet these have yet to be widely disseminated through the press or introduced by most governments.

Economists such as Milton Friedman from the Chicago school and others from the Public Choice school, argue that market failure does not necessarily imply that government should attempt to solve market failures, because the costs of government failure might be worse than those of the market failure it attempts to fix.

Economists aligned with his government have argued that this was due to external factors outside the control of the administration at the time, such as the devaluation of the Brazilian real and the growth of the share of the debt denominated in US dollars.

Economists such as Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps reject this theory because it implies that workers suffer from money illusion.

Economists such as Tim Harford in the Undercover Economist have argued that this is a form of price discrimination: by providing a choice between a regular and premium product, consumers are being asked to reveal their degree of price sensitivity ( or willingness to pay ) for comparable products.

Economists such as Paul Krugman and Jeffrey Sachs have also analyzed many traits related to economic geography.

Jomo ( 2005 ), Pioneers of Development Economics: Great Economists on Development, Zed Books-the contributions of economists such as Marshall and Keynes, not normally considered development economists

Economists such as Paul Krugman, Peter Orszag, and Emmanuel Saez have argued that tax policy in the post World War II era has indeed increased income inequality by enabling the wealthiest American workers far greater access to capital than lower-income Americans.

In the early 1900s, the campus of what was then known as Iowa State College was host to multiple events in the spring, as each college celebrated its history and recruited prospective students by holding an individual celebration — such as the Ag Carnival, the Home Economists ' " HEC Day ," and the Engineers ' St. Patrick's Day Parade.

The university has many lecture series, such as the high-profile Trinity Distinguished Lecture Series, Stieren Arts Enrichment Series, Nobel Economists Lecture Series, and Flora Cameron Lecture on Politics and Public Affairs.

Economists attributed the rise of Malaysia's ranking to the efforts of the Malaysian government to improve the country's business environment such as the New Economic Model, the Government Transformation Programme and the Economic Transformation Programme

Economists and historians recognise that common land tends to be overfarmed and overused, and in a similar vein the absence of property rights in the waters around the UK has led to overfishing such that the price of fish and seafood has rocketed.

The European Council of Construction Economists is planning to develop such open source databases for other European countries as well.

Economists such as Paul Krugman refer to the similarly named ( and sometimes confused with ) Great Compression as a period during which economic equality rose due to the progressive tax policies instituted during the years of WWII and the policies of the Roosevelt Administration.

The future administrators for the future modern nation state system with many functions ; such as Bureaucrats, Civil Servants, Think tanks, Public policy makers, Economists all from the university system.

Klein ( 1983 ) asserts that “ Economists now recognise that such a sharp distinction does not exist and that it is useful to consider also transactions occurring within the firm as representing market ( contractual ) relationships .” The costs involved in such transactions that are within a firm or even between the firms are the transaction costs.

Economists have discovered various factors which affect the occurrence of deviations from covered interest rate parity and the fleeting nature of covered interest arbitrage opportunities, such as differing characteristics of assets, varying frequencies of time series data, and the transaction costs associated with arbitrage trading strategies.

Economists have suggested an array of other factors to account for observed deviations from interest rate parity, such as differing tax treatment, differing risks, government foreign exchange controls, supply or demand inelasticity, transaction costs, and time differentials between observing and executing arbitrage opportunities.

Economists ’ findings about the benefits of trade have often been rejected by government policy-makers, who have frequently sought to protect domestic industries against foreign competition by erecting barriers, such as tariffs and quotas, against imports.

Economists who studied with Hayek at the LSE in the 1930s and the 1940s include Arthur Lewis, Ronald Coase, John Kenneth Galbraith, Abba Lerner, Nicholas Kaldor, George Shackle, Thomas Balogh, Vera Smith, L. K. Jha, Arthur Seldon, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, and Oskar Lange.

Economists Paul Krugman and Maurice Obstfeld present a theoretical model in which they state that the balance of payments crisis occurs when the real exchange rate ( exchange rate adjusted for relative price differences between countries ) is equal to the nominal exchange rate ( the stated rate ).

* Economists from Adam Smith to Paul Krugman have noted that similar businesses tend to congregate geographically (" agglomerate "); opening near similar companies attracts workers with skills in that business, which draws in more businesses seeking experienced employees.

* Paul R. Portney, ' The Contingent Valuation Debate: Why Economists Should Care ' The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.

Economists Milton Friedman, Gordon Tullock, Bryan Caplan, and Paul Krugman Furthermore, Roger Garrison argues that a false boom caused by artificially low interest rates would cause a boom in consumption goods as well as investment goods ( with a decrease in " middle goods "), thus explaining the jump in unemployment at the end of a boom.

Economists from the Austrian school claim that governments take ownership of the means of production in certain industries and ban competition under the false pretense that they are natural monopolies.

Economists Matthew Bishop and Michael Green claim that full acceptance of the hypothesis goes against the thinking of Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes, who both believed irrational behavior had a real impact on the markets.

Economists have suggested that those who support protectionism ostensibly to further the interests of workers in least developed countries are in fact being disingenuous, seeking only to protect jobs in developed countries.

Economists would classify the Ontario Health Premium as a regressive tax for those above the $ 20, 000 taxable income threshold.

Economists then judge the " openness " of markets according to the amount of government regulation of those markets, the scope for competition, and the absence or presence of local cultural customs which get in the way of trade.

* Economists frequently cannot even agree on the basic principles of the functioning of economic life, and consequently what constitutes a deviation from those principles is in dispute.

Economists, political economists and historians have taken different perspectives on the analysis of capitalism.

Economists and political economists often disagree on what is preeminent in developing production, market, and political structure theories.

" Economists working in the Marxian-Sraffian tradition represent a small minority of modern economists, and that their writings have virtually no impact upon the professional work of most economists in major English-language universities ", according to George Stigler.

Economists who advocated these policies do not necessarily share principles, such as Nobel prize-winning economists Milton Friedman ( Monetarism school ), George Stigler ( Chicago School of Economics / Neo-Classical Economics ), Richard Posner ( Chicago School / Pragmatism ), and Friedrich Hayek ( Austrian School of Economics ), have sought substantially to limit economic regulation.

Economists who have examined the impact of new trade-restrictive measures using detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistics estimated that new measures taken through late 2009 were distorting global merchandise trade by 0. 25 % to 0. 5 % ( about $ 50 billion a year ).

Economists who believe this to be the case refer to this as a monopoly wage.

Economists include academics who undertake research and teaching in economics, and professionals with economic expertise employed by governments, financial institutions and other businesses.