Modern literature in German begins with the authors of the Enlightenment ( such as Herder ) and reaches its classical form at the turn of the 18th century with Weimar Classicism ( Goethe and Schiller ).

He and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what he called a ' science of man ', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.

The early 18th century sees the conclusion of the Baroque period and the incipient Age of Enlightenment with authors such as Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau or Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

The concept of " free will ", as we know it today, comes primarily from authors during the Renaissance and from philosophers during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe – in other words, not before the 16th century.

Influenced by Enlightenment ideals, especially works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the " noble savage " myth, the authors chose the Brazilian Indian to represent the new nation.

The Federacion traced the origins of its federative position in Balkan authors of the Enlightenment like Rhigas Velestinlis, and stressed that the forthcoming peace should exclude any change of borders or transfer of populations.

Since effective copyright was slow to take hold, many editions were pirated well into the period of the Enlightenment, and without effective royalty systems in place, authors often saw little, if any, of the revenues for their popular works.

The early 18th century sees the conclusion of the Baroque period and the incipient Age of Enlightenment with authors such as Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau or Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

While earlier authors such as Michel de Montaigne discussed how societies change through time, it was truly the Scottish Enlightenment which proved key in the development of sociocultural evolution.

This ambivalence was rooted in the historical circumstances in which Dialectic of Enlightenment was originally produced: the authors saw National Socialism, Stalinism, state capitalism, and mass culture as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately explained within the terms of traditional Critical Theory.

In keeping with the values of Enlightenment philosophies of their time, the authors of The Spectator promoted family, marriage, and courtesy.

While earlier authors such as Michel de Montaigne discussed how societies change through time, it was truly the Scottish Enlightenment which proved key in the development of cultural evolution.

During the previous pontificate the Jesuits had been expelled from Portugal and from all the Bourbon courts: France, Spain, Naples, and Parma ; now the general suppression of the order was urged by the faction called the " court cardinals ", who were opposed by the diminished pro-Jesuit faction, the Zelanti (" zealous "), who were generally opposed to the encroaching secularism of the Enlightenment.

While the public sphere is generally an integral component of social interpretations of the Enlightenment, numerous historians have brought into question whether the public sphere was bourgeois, oppositional to the state, independent from the state, or egalitarian.

It predates the Enlightenment, which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root, and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history.

The modern Church's views regarding torture have changed drastically which are generally associated with the Enlightenment.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755 ), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Enlightenment.

Regardless of the precise dates used to define its beginning and end points, the early modern period is generally agreed to have comprised the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment.

In the Theravada Buddhist tradition, the teacher is a valued and honoured mentor worthy of great respect and is a source of inspiration on the path to Enlightenment, however the teacher is not generally considered to be a guru but rather a spiritual friend or Kalyāṇa-mittatā.

Until the Enlightenment, the Christian church generally gave biblical narratives of early Genesis the weight of historical narratives.

In sociology, a discipline that arose in direct response to the social problems of " modernity " ( Harriss 2000, 325 ), the term most generally refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of Enlightenment.

Instead of the earlier, seventeenth-century salons of the high nobility, Madame Geoffrin's salon catered generally to a more philosophical crowd of the Enlightenment period.

Very recent historiography has tended to moderate Goodman's thesis, arguing that while women did play a significant role in the salons they facilitated-rather than created, as Goodman argues-the ideas and debates generally associated with the Enlightenment.

Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured “ to make information available to the greatest number of people ”.

* France ( 1814 ): The thinkers of the Enlightenment had opposed slavery since Voltaire had mocked the slave traders in Candide.

Ronald Howard was convinced the order to shoot down Howard's airliner came directly from Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in Nazi Germany, who had been ridiculed in one of Howard's films and who believed Howard to be the most dangerous British propagandist.

As a man of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive.

The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past – a concept of the Scottish Enlightenment which David Hume had stated as " all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past ", and James Hutton had described when he wrote in 1788 that " from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter.

Though unsatisfied with Adorno and Horkeimer's thought presented in Dialectic of Enlightenment, Habermas shares the view that, in the form of instrumental rationality, the era of modernity marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment and toward a new form of enslavement.

The rational view was recovered during the high Middle Ages, separated from theology during the Renaissance and found its apogee in the Age of Enlightenment.

The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French Revolutions.

The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the Age of Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Swiss philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu.

* Enlightenment ( spiritual ), a final blessed state free from ignorance, desire and suffering

Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment.

A writer and follower of the philosophers of the Enlightenment tradition of the previous century, Jovellanos had served as Minister of Justice from 1797 to 1798 under King Charles IV of Spain.

Voltaire was a highly influential historian during The Enlightenment ; he stressed the need to move away from great men and to study the people and their culture.

The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was Francis Hutcheson, who held the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746.

The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist, James Anderson, an agronomist, Joseph Black, physicist and chemist, and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Since the 19th century, humanism has been associated with an anti-clericalism inherited from the 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes.

" This restated the Scottish Enlightenment concept which David Hume had put in 1777 as " all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past ", and Charles Lyell memorably rephrased in the 1830s as " the present is the key to the past ".

In the end science and scientific rationality, often taking models from the 18th-century Enlightenment, came to be seen as the source of logic and stability, while the basic primitive sexual and unconscious drives, along with the seemingly counter-intuitive workings of the new machine age, were taken as the basic emotional substance.

From the 15th to 17th century, these ideas that are alternatively described as Western esotericism, which had a revival from about 1770 onwards, due to a renewed desire for mystery, an interest in the Middle Ages and a romantic " reaction to the rationalist Enlightenment.

Notwithstanding the meekness and affability of his upright and moderate character, modest to a fault ( he had the classical sculptures in the Vatican provided with mass-produced fig leaves ) and generous with his extensive private fortune, Clement XIII's pontificate was disturbed by perpetual contentions respecting the pressures to suppress the Jesuits coming from the progressive Enlightenment circles of the philosophes in France.

Earlier, there was a strong romantic nationalist element mixed with Enlightenment rationalism in the rhetoric used in British North America, in the colonists ' Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution of 1787, as well as the rhetoric in the wave of revolts, inspired by new senses of localized identities, which swept the American colonies of Spain, one after the other, from 1811.

Looked at from the Way of Enlightenment and Emancipation, all sixty-two of these theories contain errors and create obstacles … A good fisherman places his net in the water and catches all the shrimp and fish he can.

Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus ; medieval Muslim polymaths such as Ibn Rushd ; Enlightenment thinkers such as Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine ; and more recent freethinkers, agnostics, and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell.

Like those of Plato and Aristotle from ancient Greece, and Enlightenment philosophers from the 17th through 19th centuries, the ideas posited by these sociologists continue to be examined today.