According to classical Muslim scholars ( such as Ibn Taymiyya ) the leader of the Muslim force capturing non-Muslim prisoners could choose whether to kill prisoners, to ransom them, to enslave them, or to cut off their hands and feet on alternate sides.

For example, Ibn Taymiyya took the position that since tafsir and sira-maghazi reports were commonly transmitted by incomplete isnads, these reports should not be assessed according to the completeness of the chains but rather on the basis of recurrent transmission of common meaning between reports.

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Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab was influenced by the writings of Ibn Taymiyya and questioned the prevalent philosophical interpretations of Islam being the Ash ' ari and Maturidi schools, claiming to rely on the Qur ' an and the Hadith without speculative philosophy so as to not transgress beyond the limits of the early Muslims known as the Salaf.

Ibn Taymiyya was born in 1263 at Harran into a well-known family of theologians and died in Damascus, Syria, outside of the Muslim cemetery.

* Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya

In addition to the Qur ' an and hadith, the works of earlier scholars like Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn Al Qayyim and Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab are used for religious guidance.

In 1285, the Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiyya started teaching Qur ' an exegesis in the mosque.

When the Il-Khan Mongols under Ghazan invaded the city in 1300, Ibn Taymiyya preached jihad, urging the citizens of Damascus to resist their occupation.

Mohamed El-Moctar El-Shinqiti, a contemporary Mauritanian scholar, has argued that " though homosexuality is a grievous sin ... no legal punishment is stated in the Qur ' an for homosexuality ... it is not reported that Prophet Muhammad has punished somebody for committing homosexuality ... there is no authentic hadith reported from the Prophet prescribing a punishment for the homosexuals ..." Hadith scholars such as Al-Bukhari, Yahya ibn Ma ` in, An-Nasa ' i, Ibn Hazm, Al-Tirmidhi, and others have impugned them.

Some Islamic scholars argued that Qiyas refers to reasoning, which Ibn Hazm ( 994-1064 ) disagreed with, arguing that Qiyas does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a real sense and analogical reasoning in a metaphorical sense.

Ibn Rushd defined and measured force as " the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body " and correctly argued " that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass ".

Regarding his studies in astronomy, Ibn Rushd argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe, and explained sunspots and scientific reasoning regarding the occasional opaque colors of the moon.

" Whereas the earlier Jewish philosophers extended the omniscience of God to include the free acts of man, and had argued that human freedom of decision was not affected by God's foreknowledge of its results, Ibn Daud, evidently following Alexander of Aphrodisias, excludes human action from divine foreknowledge.

On the other hand, al-Ghazali ( also known as " Algazel " in Europe ), who often disagreed with Aristotle and Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ) on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three " powers " in their Qalb (" heart "), the other two being appetite and impulse.

Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah ( 1263 – 1328 ), the Ar-Radd ' ala al-Mantiqiyyin ( Refutation of Greek Logicians ), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogism and in favour of inductive reasoning.

Some Islamic scholars argued that Qiyas refers to inductive reasoning, which Ibn Hazm ( 994-1064 ) disagreed with, arguing that Qiyas does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a real sense and analogical reasoning in a metaphorical sense.

Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah ( 1263 – 1328 ), the Ar-Radd ' ala al-Mantiqiyyin ( Refutation of Greek Logicians ), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogism and in favour of inductive reasoning.

Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the heart, whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul " is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs.

" ( Narrated in Abu Daud, & Ibn Majah ) Anas added to the above hadith, " Its price is Haram ( forbidden )" Jurists have argued by qiyas that the above restriction on privatization can be extended to all essential resources that benefit the community as a whole.

However, those that argued against geomancy, such as Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddima, countered that it was a pre-Islamic system of knowledge, and that all such epistemologies were rendered obsolete with the revelation of the Qur ' an.

In 2010 a group of Islamic Scholars in Mardin argued that Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa was misprinted into an order to " fight " the ruler who is not applying Islamic law, but rather it means to " treat ".

Later, Ibn Taymiyyah argued against the certainty of syllogistic arguments and in favour of analogy ( Qiyas ).

Philby argued that Ibn Saud was a " democrat " guiding his affairs " by mutual counsel " as laid out in the Quran ( Surah 62: 37 ), in contrast to Lord Curzon's " Hussein policy ".

Later the other three courtiers of Harun who had sworn loyalty to Harun by supporting Al-Ma ' mun, namely Eesa Jarudi, Abu Yunus, and Ibn Abi Omran found loopholes in Fazl's arguments, and Fazl admitted Harun had appointed Al-Ma ' mun after him, but, he argued, since Harun was not in his right mind, his decision should not be acted upon.

Ibn Daud was nevertheless aware that such an equation contradicted known chronology but argued that the Gospel accounts were in error.

Further solutions to the existence of God have been proposed by St. Anselm, who formulated the first ontological argument ; Ibn Rushd ( Averroes ) and Aquinas, who presented their own versions of the cosmological argument ( the kalam argument and the first way ), respectively ; Descartes, who said that the existence of a benevolent God was logically necessary for the evidence of the senses to be meaningful ; and Immanuel Kant, who argued that the existence of God can be deduced from the existence of good.

Some Islamic scholars argued that qiyas refers to inductive reasoning, which Ibn Hazm ( 994-1064 ) disagreed with, arguing that qiyas does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a real sense and analogical reasoning in a metaphorical sense.

Ibn Rushd argued the rationale relates to the possibilities of cheating that exists in riba, which is clearly visible in riba fadl.

Arafat disputes large-scale killings and argued that Ibn Ishaq gathered information from descendants of the Qurayza Jews, who embellished or manufactured the details of the incident.

These include narrations of Ibn ' Abbas who argued that when the Qur ' anic verse on giving rights to kindred was revealed, Muhammad called to his daughter and gifted the land of Fadak to her.

It is also argued that Prince Muhammad, the oldest surviving son of Ibn Saud after Faisal, either declined the role of crown prince or was passed over because of his close association with King Saud during the latter's reign.

Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them.

Abd ar-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun ( who died in 917 ) and his sons.

In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar Ibn Taymiyyah calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslims like the Druze, Alawites, Ismaili, and twelver Shiites, al-Malik al-Nasir inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan and forced outward compliance on their part to orthodox Sunni Islam.

Then came an even more shocking confession: according to the CIA document, al-Faruq said two senior al-Qaeda officials, Abu Zubaydah and Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, had ordered him to ' plan large-scale attacks against U. S. interests in Indonesia, Malaysia, ( the ) Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam and Cambodia.

The organization of the kingdom developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif ( 1672 – 1727 ), who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state.

* Bahlul Ibn Marzuq revolted in Zaragoza against the central government of Muslim Al-Andalus.

* Spain: Muhammad Ibn Yusuf Ibn Nasr rebels against the independent ruler of al-Andalus, Ibn Hud al-Yadami and takes control of the city of Arjona.

Ibn al-Athir wrote: " They Muslims were treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the Franks.

Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from the influential Islamic theologian Ghazali who attacked philosophy so it would not become an affront to the teachings of Islam.

Ibn Arabi suggested: " The Sufi should shut his door against the world for forty days and occupy himself with remembrance of Allah, that is to keep repeating, " Allah, Allah ..." Then, " Almighty God will spread before him the degrees of the kingdom as a test.

Historian Ibn Hayyan reported that in 816, Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Mugit launched a military campaign against the pro-Frankish " Enemy of God ", " Velasco the Gascon " (, Balašk al-Ŷalašqī ), Sahib of Pamplona ().

* Sefat Yeter, in defense of Saadia Gaon against Dunash ben Labrat, whose criticism of Saadia, Ibn Ezra had brought with him from Egypt ; published by Bislichs 1838 and Lippmann 1843.

Ibn abi Dunya, a 9th-century scholar and tutor to the caliphs, described seven censures ( prohibitions against vices ) in his writings:

Guiscard immediately fortified Messina and allied himself with Ibn at-Timnah, one of the rival emirs of Sicily, against Ibn al-Hawas, another emir.

Ibn Falaquera defended the " Guide for the Perplexed " against attacks of anti-Maimonideans.

Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) is most famous for his commentaries on Aristotle's works and for writing The Incoherence of the Incoherence in which he defended the falasifa against al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers.

In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote the following comments on truth:

In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge: